UNIT I - ppt ENV.pptx

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
AND ENGINEERING
BALAJI T.P..
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
SETHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.
1

UNIT I
Components of Environment
2

Meaning
•The term environment has been derived from
a French word “Environia” means to
surround.
•It refers to both abiotic (physical or non-
living) and biotic (living) environment.
•The word environment means surroundings,
in which organisms live.
4

Meaning(CONTD.)
•Environment regulates the life of the
organisms including human beings.
•Human beings interact with the
environment more vigorously than other
living beings.
•Ordinarily environment refers to the
materials and forces that surrounds the
living organism.
5

Meaning(CONTD.)
•In other words environment refers to those
surroundings that surrounds living beings
from all sides and affect their lives in total.
•It consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere and biosphere.
•It’s chief components are soil, water, air,
organisms and solar energy.
•It has provided us all the resources for
leading a comfortable life.
6

Definition
1. According to P. Gilbert “Environment is
anything immediately surrounding an
object and exerting a direct influence on
it.”
2. According to E. J. Ross “Environment is
an external force which influences us.”
7

Four Components of Environment
•The four major components of
environment include lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere,
corresponding to rocks, water, air and life
respectively.
8

Lithosphere
•1. Lithosphere is the outermost layer of earth
called crust, which is made of different
minerals.
• Its depth can reach up to 100 kilometers and is
found on both land (terrestrial crust) and
oceans (oceanic crust).
•The main component of lithosphere is earth’s
tectonic plates( found in the crust & uppermost
layer of mantle).
9

Layers of the lithosphere/ earth
10

Layers of the lithosphere/ earth
there are four main layers namely:
•The crust
•The mantle
•The outer core
•The inner core.
The pressure and temperature increase
tremendously when one goes from the outer
layers to the inner layers. 11

The Crust
• The crust or the Lithosphere is the outermost layer of
the Earth made up of silicate rock materials. It makes
up only about one percent of the Earth.
• Most earthquakes occur in the crust. The
temperature of this layer can reach up to 1600 °F at
considerable depths.
• For example; the continental crust is about 8-mile
thick and composed of lighter materials like granite,
quartz, and feldspar. Whereas, the oceanic crust
measures about 3 miles and is mostly made up of
basalt. 12

The Mantle
• The mantle, the largest layer of the Earth, is made up
of iron, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, silicone, and
oxygen.
• In fact, most of the Earth’s mass (about 80 percent)
lies in the mantle.
• The temperature in this layer is estimated to be about
1600 – 4000 °F. It is in this layer that volcano magma
is present.
• The overall thickness of the mantle layer is 1,802
miles. For simple study and understanding, the mantle
layer is further divided into the upper and lower
sections. 13

The Outer Core
• The outer core is liquid and made up of iron and nickel. The
recorded density is very high, but less than pure molten iron.
• Hence, scientists are of the opinion that sulfur and oxygen
may be present in the outer core. This is because, these two
elements dissolve easily in liquid iron.
• The outer core measures 1400 miles in thickness and 8000 –
11000 °F in temperature.
• As the Earth rotates, the outer core (consisting of iron) spins
over the inner core and generates the Earth’s magnetic
field.
14

The Inner Core
• The inner core, as the name suggests, is the innermost
layer of the Earth, and is characterized by extremely high
temperature (may reach 9000 – 13,000 °F) and pressure
conditions.
• The intense heat reflected from the inner core mobilizes
the materials of the outer core and the mantle.
• It is due to the high pressure that the inner core materials
are unable to move, and hence remain solid. The thickness
of the inner core is believed to be about 800 miles.
15

Hydrosphere
•2. Hydrosphere comprises of all forms of water
bodies on earth including oceans, seas, rivers,
lakes, ponds, streams etc. It covers 70% of
earth’s surface. 97.5% of water found on Earth is
in the oceans in the form of salt water. Only 2.5
% of water on Earth is freshwater. Out of this,
30.8% is available as groundwater and 68.9% is
in frozen forms as in glaciers. Amount of 0.3% is
available in rivers, reservoirs and lakes and is
easily accessible to man. 16

Atmosphere
3. Atmosphere is gaseous layer enveloping
the Earth. The atmosphere with oxygen in
abundance is unique to Earth and sustains
life. It mainly comprises 78.08% nitrogen,
20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.038%
carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen,
helium, and noble gases. The amount of
water vapour present is variable. The
atmosphere has 5 layers…
17

Layers of the atmosphere
• There are five layers in the structure of the
atmosphere depending upon temperature. These
layers are:
• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere
• Exosphere
18

Troposphere
• It is considered as the lowest layer of Earth’s
atmosphere.
• The troposphere starts at surface of the earth and
goes up to a height of 7 to 20 km.
• All weather occurs within this layer.
• This layer has water vapour.
• Temperature decreases at the rate of 1 degree Celsius
for every 165 m of height.
• Tropopause separates Troposphere and Stratosphere.
20

Stratosphere
• It is the second layer of the atmosphere found above the
troposphere.
• It extends up to 50 km of height.
• This layer is very dry as it contains little water vapour.
• This layer provides some advantages for flight because it is
above stormy weather and has steady, strong, horizontal
winds.
• The ozone layer is found in this layer.
• The ozone layer absorbs UV rays and safeguards earth from
harmful radiation.
• Stratopause separates Stratosphere and Mesosphere.
21

Mesosphere
• The Mesosphere is found above the stratosphere.
• It is the coldest of the atmospheric layers.
• The mesosphere starts at 50 km above the surface of
Earth and goes up to 85 km.
• The temperature drops with altitude in this layer.
• Meteors burn up in this layer.
• The upper limit is called Mesopause which separates
Mesosphere and Thermosphere
22

Thermosphere
• This layer is found above Mesopause from 80 to 400 km.
• Radio waves which are transmitted from the earth are reflected back
by this layer.
• The temperature increases with height.
• Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.
Ionosphere
• The lower Thermosphere is called the Ionosphere.
• Ionosphere consists of electrically charged particles known as ions.
• This layer is defined as the layer of the atmosphere of Earth that is
ionized by cosmic and solar radiation.
• It is positioned between 80 and 400 km above the Mesopause.
23

Exosphere
•It is the outermost layer of the atmosphere.
•The zone where molecules and atoms
escape into space is mentioned as the
exosphere.
•It extends from the top of the thermosphere
up to 10,000 km.
24

Biosphere
•4. Biosphere refers to all the regions on Earth
where life exists. The ecosystems that support
life could be in air, water and land. The term
Biosphere was coined by Geologist Edward Suess
who used this term for place on Earth where life
can be found. Biosphere refers to the sum total
of all living matter, the biomass or biota. It
extends from the polar ice caps to the equator,
with each region harboring some life form
suitable to the conditions there.
25

Environmental science has no particular discipline
• Environmental science is an interdisciplinary subject.
It draws from subjects like geography, geology,
biology, chemistry, physics, genetics, sociology, rural
development, urban planning, policy development,
politics, cultural studies, economics, ethics, law,
education, health, communication and philosophy. It
is a science that will address the biggest challenges
encountering the planet in this millennium. It studies
the complex interaction of human with nature and
provides guidelines for the way forward.
26

Relationship Between The Components of The
Natural Environment
• The various components of the natural environment are
related to one another.
• For example the air; human beings and animals breath, is
essentially from trees and other forms of vegetation. The
trees in turn take in the air human beings breathe out.
• The land provides support and nutrients for the trees and
other plants.
• The plants also in turn provide the land with their dead
leaves or other parts which contribute to the formation of
soil. 27

Ways By Which The Social Environment Affects
The Physical/ Natural Environment
•Belief system: Some societies do not destroy the
resources in their surroundings. For example
Australians believe that they did not own the
land, but they have to protect it.
•Again some groups of people in India believe
that the trees in the forest are gods and thus it is
their responsibility to protect it.
28

Ways By Which The Social Environment Affects The
Physical/ Natural Environment…cont…
• Some Ghanaian societies believe the river and the water
bodies were considered scared as well as the forest so
regulations (taboo bans individuals who would take or use
such resource at their own will).
• On the other hand, other societies do not hold the same
beliefs which protect their natural environment. People in
these societies tend to be the living and non-living things in
their natural environment. They view these things as
resources to be used rather than protected. Due to their
belief they find it less important to cater for the environment
leaving it in a bad state.
29

Physical/ Natural Environment…cont…
• Festivals: Some societies have festivals which protect their
environment. For instance, the people of Winneba celebrate the
Aboakyire Festival every year.
• During this festival, the Asgo companies go to the bush and catch
a live deer for the festival rituals. It has become necessary and
needful for the people in winneba to protect the forest
(vegetation and wild life) to get the live Deers needed for their
festival.
• On the other hand communities whose festivals have no regards
for the natural environment destroy them. A typical example will
be bush burning by the youth and teens in order to obtain bush
meat which would have been prevented in another community.
30

Physical/ Natural Environment….CONT…
• Taboos: In the olden days, the Ghanaian traditional societies
had respect for taboos which protect our environment,
especially the vegetation (forest) and water bodies.
• The taboo prevented activities such as farming near water
bodies, defecating in water bodies as well as polluting water
bodies with dangerous chemicals (DDT) during fishing.
• The current generation pays little or no respect of these
taboos which were set more or less to protect the
environment. These behaviors have made the shores
(Beaches) of the sea unattractive and uncomfortable to stay
compare to other communities where to seat to enjoy
nature.
31

Ways By Which The Social Environment Affects The Physical/
Natural Environment….CONT…
• The quality of the existing laws: The quality of the existing laws
and the extent in which they are enforced affect our environment.
Degradation is likely to occur.
• For example, the Indian River in Dominica Caribbean Island was
polluted by tourist and boat operators because there were no laws
governing their activities.
• The Korle Lagoon and Odo River in Ghana (Accra) are degraded due
to poor enforcement of law by the administrators.
• People put up buildings on waterways and do not care what the
result might be after a heavy down pour. And law enforcers have
little or no say to these practices. When laws are enacted and
proper measure of enforcement is put in place degradation would
be the least to talk about in a community. 32

Physical/ Natural Environment….CONT…
• Local Administrators: Good administration will find
answers to human activities that would destroy the
environment.
• They would provide a system that would conserve rather
than degrade the environment through provision of place
of convenience, dump site and sewage system.
• Introducing activities such as afforestation and good
farming and fishing practices help in conserving the
environment. Administrations which do not provide for the
dwellers basics necessities as mentioned are likely to
degrade the environment. 33

Ways By Which The Social Environment Affects
The Physical/ Natural Environment…CONT
•Attitude / concern: The attitudes of people
determine the quality of the environment. For
example; People with good environmental
attitude will grow plants after cutting; put litter
into proper bins etc. however, people who do
not care about the environment would litter
their surroundings, cutting down trees
indiscriminately.
34

How Physical Environment Affects Social
Environment
•The physical environment affects the social
environment in the following ways;
1. The type of food: The physical environment
determines the soil, climate and vegetation of an area
which tends to affect / determines the type of crops
to plant and eat. For example in Ghana, people who
live in the forest zone eat more plantain, cocoyam and
cassava whiles those in the savanna belt eat more
guinea corn and sorghum.
35

How Physical Environment Affects Social Environment…CONT…
• 2. Clothing: The type of things we wear is also determined
by the physical environment. Ghana receives sunshine
virtually throughout the year while Greenland on the other
hand receives sunshine six months a year.
• In Ghana two seasons are experienced; wet and dry
season. People are seen in jackets during wet season, but
during the dry season they are seen in ordinary shirts or
outfits.
• In other parts of the country where temperature is
relatively low and little or no sunshine is experienced,
people tend to put on pullovers and jackets in folds
throughout the year.
36

Environment
3. Shelter: Even though trade among nations has
changed the way we build, many people use the
building materials that are available in their local area
to build their houses. A good example are farmers
who put up buildings of forest trees in the forest zone
on the other hand people in the savanna zone use less
trees in their buildings.
37

Environment…CONT…
•4. Type of local work: Education has not been
able to change the traditional (local work) jobs in
Ghana. For instance, people in Ghana situated
along the rivers, lagoons, seas turn out to be
fishermen where as those with fertile land
engage in farming, craftsmen also engage in craft
work in the forest zones of the country.
38

Environment…CONT…
•5. Type of energy: The main source of Ghana’s
energy is from the Volta River and the Akosombo
Dam. Anytime the volume of water in the Volta
River is reduced, the supply of electricity in
Ghana is reduced accordingly (load shedding).
An increase in the volume of water of Volta
increases the supply of power.
39

Ecosystem Definition
“An ecosystem is defined as a
community of lifeforms in concurrence
with non-living components, interacting
with each other.”
40

What is an Ecosystem?
•The ecosystem is the structural and functional
unit of ecology where the living organisms
interact with each other and the surrounding
environment.
•In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of
interaction between organisms and their
environment.
•The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by
A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
42

Types of Ecosystem
•An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in
a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning
thousands of miles. There are two types of
ecosystem:
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem
2. Aquatic Ecosystem
43

Terrestrial Ecosystems
•Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based
ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial
ecosystems distributed around various geological
zones. They are as follows:
i. Forest Ecosystems
ii. Grassland Ecosystems
iii. Tundra Ecosystems
iv. Desert Ecosystem
44

i. Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and
microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic
factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining
the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon
sink.
ii. Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by
grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands, savanna
grasslands are some of the examples of grassland
ecosystems.
45

iii. Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found
in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce. These are
covered with snow for most of the year. The
ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is tundra
type.
iv. Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are
regions with very little rainfall. The days are hot and
the nights are cold.
46

v. Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a
body of water. These can be further divided into
two types, namely:
a) Freshwater Ecosystem
b) Marine Ecosystem
47

a) Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic
ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers,
streams and wetlands. These have no salt content
in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
b)Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans.
These have a more substantial salt content and
greater biodiversity in comparison to the
freshwater ecosystem.
48

Structure of the Ecosystem
• The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the
organisation of both biotic and abiotic components. This includes
the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes
the climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
• The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main
components, namely:
• Biotic Components
• Abiotic Components
• The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an
ecosystem. It is an open system where the energy and
components can flow throughout the boundaries.
49

Structure of Ecosystem highlighting the biotic
and abiotic factors
50

Biotic Components
•Biotic components refer to all life in
an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorized into autotrophs,
heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
•Producers include all autotrophs such as plants.
They are called autotrophs as they can produce food
through the process of photosynthesis.
Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the
food chain rely on producers for food.
51

•Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that
depend on other organisms for food. Consumers
are further classified into primary consumers,
secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
•Primary consumers are always herbivores that they
rely on producers for food.
•Secondary consumers depend on primary
consumers for energy. They can either be a
carnivore or an omnivore.
•Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on
secondary consumers for food. Tertiary consumers
can also be an omnivore. 52

•Quaternary consumers are present in some food
chains. These organisms prey on tertiary
consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually
at the top of a food chain as they have no natural
predators.
•Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and
bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead and
decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential
for the ecosystem as they help in recycling nutrients
to be reused by plants. 53

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living
component of an ecosystem. It includes air,
water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature,
nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
54

Functions of Ecosystem
• The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
• It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports
life systems and renders stability.
• It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between
biotic and abiotic components.
• It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in
the ecosystem.
• It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
• The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic
components that involves the exchange of energy.
55

Important Ecological Concepts
• 1. Food Chain
• The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the
energy required for all plant life. The plants utilise this energy for the
process of photosynthesis, which is used to synthesise their food.
• During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical
energy and is passed on through successive levels. The flow of energy
from a producer, to a consumer and eventually, to an apex predator
or a detritivore is called the food chain.
• Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down
into its constituents by scavengers. The reducers then absorb these
constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers liberate
molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the
producers.
56

2. Ecological Pyramids
•An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation
of the number, energy, and biomass of the successive
trophic levels of an ecosystem.
•Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the
ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.
58

2. Ecological Pyramids…CONT
•The biomass, number, and energy of organisms
ranging from the producer level to the consumer
level are represented in the form of a pyramid;
hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.
•The base of the ecological pyramid comprises
the producers, followed by primary and
secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers
hold the apex. In some food chains, the
quaternary consumers are at the very apex of
the food chain.
59

•The producers generally outnumber the primary
consumers and similarly, the primary consumers
outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly,
apex predators also follow the same trend as the
other consumers; wherein, their numbers are
considerably lower than the secondary
consumers.
62

• For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat,
which are plentiful. These grasshoppers are then preyed upon by
common mice, which are comparatively less in number. The mice are
preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed
on by apex predators such as the brown snake eagle.
Grasshopper →Mice→ Cobra → Brown
Snake Eagle
63

3. Food Web
•Food web is a network of interconnected food
chains.
•It comprises all the food chains within a single
ecosystem.
•It helps in understanding that plants lay the
foundation of all the food chains.
• In a marine environment, phytoplankton forms
the primary producer.
64

Development and Evolution of Ecosystem
The Development and Evolution of Ecosystem is
termed as Ecological Succession or Ecological
development.
66

Definition
Ecological development is defined as a
process of environmental improvement by
different organisms.
Ecological Succession is the process of
change in the species structure of ecological
community over time.
67

Characteristics of Ecosystem development
•It is an orderly process of community
development that involves community
processes with time
•It is results from modification of physical
environment by community.
•Finally, it ends in a stabilized ecosystem. It
has maximum biomass and the system of
energy flow is maintained.
68

Causes of ecological development CONT…
Initiating causes-
• These are physical in nature.
• Major climatic changes can destroy the entire population or
community in an area.
• Erosion (soil erosion and forests on slope) or deposition on large scale
can also affect adversely.
• Lighting can cause fire.
• Volcanic activity can cover the entire area with community by lava.
• An earthquake can bring a great disaster on extensive area.
• These initiating causes either prepare new areas or destroy existing
life.
69

Causes of ecological development ….CONT
•Continuing causes - Some activities like
migration, competition or reaction can cause
changes on large scale. The main cause is the
change in soil features.
•Stabilizing cause- This is responsible for the
stabilization of a community. Favorable climate is
the main cause of stabilization.
70

Basic types
• Primary succession – starts from empty land with no
organism. The first group of organism established,
taking a period of 1000 years.
• Secondary succession – after the existence of
organism, its new secondary forms are created. It
takes 10 to 100 years to develop.
• Autogenic succession – happens in case of plants.
Due to climatic change the vegetation also changes.
• Allogenic succession – due to rainfall and soil erosion
changes takes place in the organisms.
72

Types classified with changes in nutrition and
energy content
• Autotrophic succession – starts with a dominance of green
plants (autotrophs). With an environment rich in inorganic
(nonliving things) elements.
• Heterotrophic succession - starts with a dominance of
animals (heterotrophs). With an environment rich in organic
(living things) elements.
• Progressive succession – the organisms develop and moves
towards climax stage.
• Retrogressive succession – final stage in which there is
abundance of living organisms. Due to overgrazing the
vegetation is destroyed, on the other hand soil erosion takes
place. 73

Important features of succession
•Simple short-lived communities are replaced by
complex, long-lived communities with big plants.
•The number of species increases with time.
•Food-webs take a more complex form
•The climax stage is more stable and persists for a
very long time.
•Succession of plant and animal communities
occurs side by side.
74

Ecological Succession of plants
•Hydrosere: This type of succession starts from a
water body like pond, lake, marsh etc. The
succession starting from saline water is called
Halosere.
•Xerosere: This type of succession starts from dry
area or land. It is called lithosere if it starts on
bare ground and if it starts on sandy area.
75

Example for Ecological evolution in a Hydrosere
The following examples explains an autogenic process. A hydrosere
originating in a lake, ends up into a forest. Successive changes in plants
occur in the following manner.
76

Example for Ecological evolution in a
Hydrosere …CONT
• Phytoplankton stage- In the lake blue-green algae,
green algae are the main organisms. They form the
pioneer community. They grow slowly.
• Rooted submerged stage – the streams flowing into
the lake bring silt. Some silt is deposited by wind. A
layer of mud is formed at the mud is formed at the
bottom of the lake. The water level comes down. It is
shallow. The growth of various types of hydrophytes
starts. They have roots but they remain submerged in
the water.
77

…CONT
• Rooted floating stage- year after year more slit is brought by
rain water and wind. The depth of water decreases and
sunlight is able to penetrate upto the bottom. A variety of
free- floating species appear with rooted plants.
Decomposition of dead plants helps in raising the
substratum.
• Reed swamp stage- with further sedimentation and
decomposition of dead plant water level is very much
reduced. The roots of the plants and their shoots are
exposed to air. The growth thickens and species from dense
vegetation
78

…CONT
• Sedge- meadow stage the amount of sedimentation
goes on increasing.
• A stage comes when mud is almost visible. Mud is
covered with a thin layer of water.
• Ultimately mud is visible in the form of marsh.
Nitrates and sulphates are formed.
• A new species of vegetation appears.
• In the beginning a mat like vegetation appears in the
centre.
• This changes into marshy vegetation. 79

Hydrosere …CONT
•Wood land stage the exposed marshes get dry
with sunlight. The marshy vegetation disappears.
The dry marshes change into soil. The soil
encourages land plants. Soon the area once
bottom of lake, is covered with shrubs. There is
large accumulation of humans. Gradually new
species of trees appear.
80

Hydrosere …CONT
•Forest stage Depending upon the geographical
conditions of the area, the lake converts into an
area (lacustrine plain) converted with well-
developed vegetation. In tropical areas of heavy
rain dense evergreen rain forests develop. In
tropical areas of moderate rain dry forests or
deciduous forest grow and in temperature areas
mixed forests dominate.
81

Lithosere/Xerosere
82

Lithosere/Xerosere
• Lichen stage – this is the origin of plants in barren
lands. It is found on rocks. With weak leaf like
structures.
• Moss stage – they are harder than the lichens. With
strong rhizoids (roots) which penetrates into the rock.
• Annual grass stage – during the rainy season the mat
like structure formed by the mosses retains moisture.
So grasses grow in between them. The grasses have
stronger roots than the mosses that breaks the rock
into soil. They die in a period of time. Mostly one year.
83

Lithosere/Xerosere
• Perennial Grass stage – they have stronger roots than
the annual grass. They penetrate deep into the soil
and live long. They retain more moisture in their
shades.
• Shrub stage – stronger than the perennial grass. Roots
even more stronger and penetrates deeper. The soil
becomes more fragmented. Because of the shade of
the shrubs the soil becomes more moist.
• Climax stage – this is the final stage in which the
shrubs are replaced by hard wood trees. So the rainfall
increases and the climatic change is found.
84

Energy flow in ecosystem….CONT
The producers and consumers in the ecosystem can be
arranged into different feeding groups and are known as
trophic level or the feeding level.
The energy flows from one level to the other.
For eg.
• The producers (plants) represent the first trophic level.
• Herbivores (primary consumers) present the second trophic
level.
• Primary carnivores (secondary consumers) represent the
third trophic level
• Top carnivores (tertiary consumers) represent the last level.
86

Energy flow in ecosystem….CONT
•The energy from the sun is used by the plants
(producers).
•When the herbivores eat the plants the energy flows
into them.
•When the primary carnivore eats the herbivore the
energy is transferred.
•When the top carnivore eats the primary carnivore
the energy is transferred.
•When the top carnivore dies…it gets decomposed
and the soil gets nutrients and energy.
•This is called as the energy flow in the ecosystem. 87

Material cycling in ecosystem
88

Water Cycle
• When it rains the water gets collected in ponds, lake,
river etc.
• This water gets evaporated due to heat
• The water evaporated gets condensed in the form of
clouds
• When the temperature rises it rains and fills the water
bodies
• Again it evaporates
This cyclic process is called as water cycle. 89

Carbon Cycle
•All living things are made of carbon.
•Carbon is also a part of the ocean, air, and even
rocks.
•Because the Earth is a dynamic place, carbon does
not stay still.
•In the atmosphere, carbon is attached to some
oxygen in a gas called carbon dioxide.
•Plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight to make their
own food and grow.
•The carbon becomes part of the plant.
91

Nitrogen Cycle
• The nitrogen cycle starts with Atmospheric nitrogen,
• around to nitrogen-fixing bacteria living in roots,
• down to nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria,
• over to nitrification, then over to nitrites (NO2), up to
nitrates(NO3),
• over to plants over to animals which continues down to
decomposers then down to ammonium
• and back around to plants which goes down to decomposers
then back around to nitrates.
93

Natural and manmade impacts on
water, air and land
“The Natural and manmade
impacts on water, air and land
is commonly termed as
pollution”.
94

Natural Sources of Pollution
• Volcanic eruptions release gases and volcanic ash.
• Forest fires produce smoke and trace gases.
• Dust storms increase the windblown dust into the
environment.
• Bacteria, spores, cysts and pollens are all natural
pollutants.
• Decay of organic matter in marshy places releases
marsh gas (methane— CH4) which is a light colourless
inflammable hydrocarbon.
95

Man-made or Anthropogenic Sources of Pollution
•Industrialisation
•Invention of automobiles
•Over population
•Deforestation: Destruction of natural
habitat
•Nuclear explosions
•Over-exploitation of natural resources
96

Four crucial functions of the environment
•Supplying Resources: The environment contains
both renewable (air, water, land) and non-
renewable (fossil fuels) resources. While the
former are re-usable and do not get depleted
soon, non-renewable resources come with the
fear of depletion.
•Assimilating Waste: Economic activities
generate waste which the environment absorbs
through natural processes.
97

•Sustenance of Life: The environment comprises
abiotic components that aid the living of biotic
components.
• In the absence of elements such as air, water,
land, etc. there would be no life on the planet.
•Aesthetic Value: The environment adds
aesthetic value to life.
•The mountains, oceans, seas, landmasses and
other scenery of the environment enhance the
quality of life.
98

Measures to Develop/Save the Environment
• Pollution Control-Pollution control boards
• Forest Conservation-planting trees….restrict cutting
of trees
• Social Awareness-campaigns and movements
• Waste Management-Solid waste management
(separate dump bins)
• Water Management-Rainwater harvesting
• Implementation of Policy Programmes-environment-
centric acts and policies
99

Sustainable Development
•Sustainable development can be defined as
an approach to the economic development
of a country without compromising the
quality of the environment for future
generations
100

Sustainable Development Goals
•To promote the kind of development that
minimizes environmental problems.
•To meet the needs of the existing
generation without compromising the
quality of the environment for future
generations
101

Features of Sustainable Development
• Restricting human being
• Technological development should be input effective
and not input utilizing
• The rate of consumption should not surpass the rate
of salvation
• For renewable resources, the rate of consumption
should not surpass the rate of production of
renewable substitutes.
• All types of pollution should be minimized
• Sensible use of Natural Resources
102

Example of Sustainable Development
•Wind Energy
•Solar Energy
•Crop Rotation
•Sustainable Construction
•Efficient Water Fixtures
•Green Space
•Sustainable Forestry
103

UNIT II - SCIENCE OF ENVIRONMENT
104

105
•The science of Environment studies comprises
various branches of studies like chemistry,
physics, life science, medical science,
agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering,
geography, geology, atmospheric science, etc. It
is the science of physical phenomena in the
environment.

Environmental Chemistry
• Environmental chemistry involves the study of chemicals
and chemical processes within the air, water, and soil. It also
involves studying how these chemicals get there, what they
do, and how humans are intertwined in all of this.
• Environmental chemistry is more than just water, air, soil,
and chemicals. People in this field use math, biology,
genetics, hydrology, engineering, toxicology, and a lot more
to help answer important questions about our environment,
the chemicals therein, and what role people play in all of this
or how it impacts us as a result.
106

Environmental Physics
•Environmental Physics, as its name implies, is
the application of the principles of physics to
problems in the natural environment. Members
of the Group are drawn from areas as diverse as
geomagnetism and agriculture. Physics can
never be taken in isolation when dealing with
environmental problems.
107

Environmental biology
• “Environmental biology” is often considered
synonymous for “ecology”. Describing the
scope of ecology, Odum wrote in 1963: “it is
the aim of this small book to outline those
basic principles of environmental biology
that are of interest, as well as of vital
concern, to all of us”.
108

Air, Water and Soil
• The earth is the only planet that is suitable for life in this universe. Life
exists because of its interaction with the resources the earth provides.
It is this interaction that creates a balance between the living and the
nonliving resources and sustains both of them. The three most
important nonliving resources for us is the air we breathe, the water
we drink and the land we live on. Without these three resources, we
cannot exist. In this section, we will discuss the importance of air,
water, and soil for the sustenance of the living beings.
109

CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS AND BIOLOGY OF SOIL/ LAND
• The minerals useful for life are found in the upper crust of
the earth. But most of these are found in rocks, which
cannot be used by plants or animal. Instead, we need them
crushed in small particles which we call soil. The soil is
formed by the breaking up of rocks by various geological,
climatic and biological processes. Soil contains minerals such
as Iron, Zinc, Nitrogen compounds, etc. that are all essential
to sustaining life. It also holds water and makes it available
for plants to use. Soil also contains ores from which we can
extract metals such as iron, copper, gold, and aluminum.
110

Cont….
• Modern farming techniques using fertilizers and pesticides
are degrading the quality of soil suitable for growing crops in
the long run. Mining and deforestation are resulting in the
loss of fertile soil. Thus, it is essential that we protect it.
• We must save our planet from air, water and soil pollution,
we must control the production of pollutants. We must act
fast or else there will be a time when mother nature decides
to act and in such a scenario life will not be as simple as it
seems today.
111

CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS AND BIOLOGY OF AIR
• Air is a mixture of gases that is composed of 78% Nitrogen, 21%
Oxygen and a very small percentage of water vapor and other
gases. The fact that air contains so much oxygen is not because
the earth provided us the atmosphere with that composition, but
because living things like plants produced oxygen for over 2
billion of years ago from carbon dioxide.
• The oxygen in the air is essential for animals to survive because
we use this oxygen to produce energy from the food we eat. The
carbon dioxide we breathe out is in turn required for plants to
trap energy from the sun and turn it into food.
112

• The air also has another important function: it regulates
the temperature of the earth and causes different weather
pattern. Without the atmosphere’s moderating effect, the
earth would be fried during the day and would be freezing
cold in the night. The movements of air (wind) bring us rain
in every monsoon.
• Polluting the air by releasing hazardous chemicals can thus
threaten the existence of life and can alter climatic
patterns.
113

CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS AND BIOLOGY OF WATER
• Water is called the medium of life. All life on the planet requires
water (there are some forms of life that can live without air)
because all the chemical reactions that occur in living cells occur
using water as a medium. Water is found in large bodies like the
ocean, seas, rivers, and lakes. It is also found in the atmosphere
as vapour and as a solid in snow, glaciers and ice shelves.
• 97% of the water on the earth is found in the oceans and is too
salty for us to drink of the 3% that is available as fresh water, 98%
of this fresh water is trapped in glaciers and ice. Only a small
amount of this natural resource is available in rivers and lakes.
114

Water is one of the most important resources on the planet. Without
Water, life cannot exist. But what makes water so important? Water has
several unique characteristics that make it an extremely valuable
resource. Some such properties of water are listed below.
• Water is a very good solvent – it has the ability to dissolve many
substances.
• The boiling point and freezing point of water make it easily available
in all three states (solid, liquid, and gaseous).
• The specific heat of water is quite high. This enables water to absorb
and release heat slowly, thereby regulating the temperature of its
environment.
115

• Owing to its transparency, water can allow light to reach the life forms
that are submerged in it. This is crucial for the survival of plant life in
the oceans, lakes, and rivers.
• Water is neither acidic nor basic in nature. It has a pH of 7, making it a
neutral substance.
These unique qualities of water, along with its abundance on the planet
(approximately 71% of the Earth’s surface is made up of water), make it
a crucial resource for plants, animals, and human beings.
116

Water in Biology
• Insufficient water content in the human body results in severe
dehydration, which is often accompanied by kidney failure, seizures,
and swelling in the brain.
• Water helps improve the circulation of oxygen throughout the body.
• It also plays a crucial role in the digestion of food.
• Water is a very important component of saliva, which helps break
down food.
• The excretion of waste in the human body requires water. Insufficient
water levels in the body may increase the strain on the kidneys,
resulting in the formation of kidney stones.
117

Water in physics
• If not for the high specific heat of water, the temperature of the Earth’s
surface would be much lower. This would make it difficult for life to survive.
• The water in the Earth’s oceans absorb heat from the sun during the day
and help maintain the temperature during the night.
• Water is necessary for the irrigation of crops and is, therefore, an integral
part of agriculture.
• It is widely used in cooking activities since it boils at a temperature of 100o
• Humans make use of water for a wide range of domestic activities such as
washing and cleaning.
• Water also serves as a medium for the transportation of cargo. Many goods
are transported between the Earth’s continents via ships.
118

Water in chemistry
• Many industries require large quantities of water for processing,
cooling, and diluting products. Examples of industries that consume
large quantities of water include the paper industry, the food
industry, and the chemical industry.
• Water is also used as an industrial solvent for the production of
several commercially important products. Almost all power plants
that generate electricity employ water to spin turbines.
• Heavy water, an important form of water, is widely used in nuclear
reactors as a neutron moderator
119

Environmental quality objectives
• REDUCED CLIMATE IMPACT In accordance with the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change, concentrations of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere must be stabilised at a level that will prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. This
goal must be achieved in such a way and at such a pace that biological
diversity is preserved, food production is assured and other goals of
sustainable development
• CLEAN AIR The air must be clean enough not to represent a risk to
human health or to animals, plants or cultural assets.
120

• NATURAL ACIDIFICATION ONLY The acidifying effects of deposition and land
use must not exceed the limits that can be tolerated by soil and water. In
addition, deposition of acidifying substances must not increase the rate of
corrosion of technical materials located in the ground, or water main
systems, archaeological objects and rock carvings.
• A NON TOXIC ENVIRONMENT The occurence of man-made or extracted
compounds in the environment must not represent a threat to human
health or biological diversity. Concentrations of non-naturally occuring
substances will be close to zero and their impacts on human health and on
ecosystems will be negligible. Concentrations of naturally occuring
substances will be close to background levels.
121

• A PROTECTIVE OZONE LAYER The ozone layer must be replenished so
as to provide long-term protection against harmful UV radiation.
• A SAFE RADIATION ENVIRONMENT Human health and biological
diversity must be protected against the harmful effects of radiation.
• ZERO EUTROPHICATION Nutrient levels in soil and water must not be
such that they adversely affect human health, the conditions for
biological diversity or the possibility of varied use of land and water.
122

• FLOURISHING LAKES AND STREAMS Lakes and watercourses must be
ecologically sustainable and their variety of habitats must be
preserved. Natural productive capacity, biological diversity, cultural
heritage assets and the ecological and water-conserving function of
the landscape must be preserved, at the same time as recreational
assets are safeguarded.
• GOOD QUALITY GROUNDWATER Groundwater must provide a safe
and sustainable supply of drinking water and contribute to viable
habitats for flora and fauna in lakes and watercourses.
123

• A BALANCED MARINE ENVIRONMENT, FLOURISHING COASTAL AREAS
AND ARCHIPELAGOS The North Sea and the Baltic Sea must have a
sustainable productive capacity, and biological diversity must be
preserved. Coasts and archipelagos must be characterized by a high
degree of biological diversity and a wealth of recreational, natural and
cultural assets. Industry, recreation and other utilization of the seas,
coasts and archipelagos must be compatible with the promotion of
sustainable development. Particularly valuable areas must be
protected against encroachment and other disturbance.
124

• THRIVING WETLANDS The ecological and water conserving function
of wetlands in the landscape must be maintained and valuable
wetlands preserved for the future.
• SUSTAINABLE FORESTS The value of forests and forest land for
biological production must be protected, at the same time as
biological diversity and cultural heritage and recreational assets are
safeguarded.
• A VARIED AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE The value of the farmed
landscape and agricultural land for biological production and food
production must be protected, at the same time as biological diversity
and cultural heritage assets are preserved and strengthened.
125

• A MAGNIFICENT MOUNTAIN LANDSCAPE The pristine character of the
mountain environment must be largely preserved, in terms of biological
diversity, recreational value, and natural and cultural assets. Activities in
mountain areas must respect these values and assets, with a view to
promoting sustainable development. Particularly valuable areas must be
protected from encroachment and other disturbance.
• A GOOD BUILT ENVIRONMENT Cities, towns and other built-up areas must
provide a good, healthy living environment and contribute to a good
regional and global environment. Natural and cultural assets must be
protected and developed. Buildings and amenities must be located and
designed in accordance with sound environmental principles and in such a
way as to promote sustainable management of land, water and other
resources.
126

• A RICH DIVERSITY OF PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE Biological diversity
must be preserved and used sustainably for the benefit of present
and future generations. Species habitats and ecosystems and their
functions and processes must be safeguarded. Species must be able
to survive in long-term viable populations with sufficient genetic
variation. Finally, people must have access to a good natural and
cultural environment rich in biological diversity, as a basis for health,
quality of life and well-being.
127

ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECTS FOR ENGINEERING
STUDENTS
128
Study On Construction Waste Effect Of Oil Spill On
Approaches To Greenbelt Design A Marine Environment
Environmental Impact Assessment Utilization And Recycling Of Treated Waste
Bio Gas From Coral Organic Waste A Case Study Of Pollution In River Arkavathi
Green Buildings For Quality Living Concept of Futuristic Buildings -Green Buildings
Pollution Study Of River Tunghabhadra The Environment-friendly Construction: Related News
Environmental Impact Assessment Report
Study Of Recycling Industrial Effluent
Recycling And Reuse Of Building Waste In Construction
Vehicular Pollution Impact on Environment What is E-construction? How can it save our planet earth.
Off Shore Drilling – Feasible methods to
minimize cost
Eco Friendly Fuels – Importance in big construction
Environmental Effect On Tungabhadra River
Near Harihar Town

UNIT-3 CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
129

•Air pollution, poor management of waste,
growing water scarcity, falling groundwater
tables, water pollution, preservation and
quality of forests, biodiversity loss, and
land/soil degradation are some of the major
environmental issues India faces today.
130

CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AT COUNTRY
LEVEL
•Air pollution: Air pollution levels in the
country have been rising to scary levels for
the past few decades. As per a World Health
Organisation survey released in June 2018,
New Delhi and Kolkata are two of the most
polluted cities in the country.
131

•Water Pollution: As per the statistics
released by Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), the number of polluted rivers in the
country has risen from 121 to 275 in the last
five years, with Maharashtra faring the
worst among states in keeping its rivers
clean.
132

•Noise Pollution: Sound pollution has
been consistently rising in Indian cities.
Currently, Hyderabad, Chennai, Lucknow
and Delhi are the noisiest cities because
of reasons like population growth,
overcrowding and traffic.
133

•Soil Pollution: One of the kinds of
pollution the country is reeling under
soil pollution, reasons like careless
disposal of chemical and menstrual
waste and excessive use of pesticides
134

•Land Denudation: The rapid
deforestation is leading to soil
erosion and land being denuded
when floods ravage areas located
near rivers.
135

•Plastic use: Despite the country’s
commitment to do away with single-use
plastic this year, India needs to go miles
ahead to curb usage of other forms of
plastic like microplastic.
136

•Coastal zone management: Rapid
economic development in areas nears
coastlines have not only led to loss of
habitat for marine life but also loss of
livelihood for locals who are involved in
fishing.
137

•Environmental governance: The
Centre needs to revamp its
environmental governance tactics
which are lying in limbo due to slow
pace of infrastructure development
and fragmented policies.
138

•Climate Change: The country is
vulnerable to climate change due to
combination of factors like high
dependence of exhaustible energy
resources, high population and rampant
poverty
139

•Smog: Months after Delhi was
covered by an unprecedented cover
of smog, the Union government is
yet to crack down on burning of
crop residue by farmers.
140

•Man-animal conflicts: Conflicts
between predators like tigers,
leopards and lions with locals living
nearby have been rising over the
last few years, often leading to
man-animal conflicts.
141

•Dams: Research shows that dams
have disrupted the connectivity of
rivers blocked sediment deposition
and impeded breeding of fishes and
other aquatic animals.
142

•Encroachment in coastal areas: Tribal groups
whose primary occupation is fishing are fast
losing their livelihoods due to commercial
activities in coastal areas. The influx of
commercial fishing and fish trawlers for export
has led to a rapid rise in conflicts involving
strikes and violent clashes.
143

•Uncontrolled mining: Government-backed
support and easy policies led to a rapid rise
in mining activities in post-Independence
era in the country. Consequently, regions
rich in minerals have witnessed
environmental degradation and
deforestation.
144

•Ecological restoration: Over the years, the
efforts on the part of the government to
undo the damage done to the environment
have been slow. On the other hand,
voluntary organizations, on many occasions
with the local populace, have organized
drives for ecological restoration.
145

•Population: With India’s population inching
closer to world’s most populous nation, China,
the country also needs to think about
accommodating its citizens, both at present and
in future. As a result, rapid urbanization has led
to various environmental problems like
deforestation and loss of habitat of animals.
146

•Hazards of chemical abuse: Once used to
increase yield of crops, the excessive use of
pesticides has over the years caused substantial
damage to the environment by hampering soil
quality. Research suggests that over the last
three decades, the average per hectare
consumption of pesticides has increased by a
wide margin.
147

•Greenhouse effect: India is yet to adopt a
stringent strategy to tackle rising emissions of
greenhouse gases (GHG). Though it has a set of
laws to bring down GHG emissions, but there is
lack of effective implementation. A PBL
Netherlands Environment Assessment Agency
report, released in 2017, showed that in 2016
India’s GHG emissions went up by 4.7%.
148

•Poaching: Despite being illegal, poaching still
thrives in India. Endangered animals continue
being killed in India for their body parts which
are in great demand in other countries for their
use in medicine and resale value. The rapid
extinction of animals also threatens to dislodge
the ecological balance and adversely affect
biodiversity
149

•Lack of accountability: India’s regulatory framework
for environment laws follows the ‘polluter pays
principle’, which literally translates to strict
punishment for the polluter and compensation for
the one affected by the act. However, the framework
is followed only on paper. As per the Environmental
Performance Index—an index which ranks 180
countries based on 24 indicators—India ranked
177th.
150

•Wildlife preservation: India’s efforts to
preserve wildlife lag behind, with many
animals on their way to extinction. Rapid
urbanization, poaching, lack of government
support are just some of the reasons to be
blamed for the problem.
151

•Lack of public participation: A much
ignored reason behind the failure of drives
to spread awareness about environmental
conservation in India is the lack of public
participation.
152

Municipal Solid Waste Management
• Solid Waste Management may be
defined as the discipline associated
with the control of generation,
collection, storage, transfer and
transport, processing and disposal of
solid wastes in a manner that is in
accord with the best principles of
public health, economics,
engineering, conservation, aesthetics
and other environmental
considerations.
153

The most commonly recognized methods for the
final disposal of solid wastes are:
•Dumping on land
•Dumping in water
•Ploughing into the soil
•Incineration
154

Municipal Solid Wastes
•Municipal solid waste includes commercial and
domestic wastes generated in municipal or notified
areas in either solid or semi-solid form excluding
industrial hazardous wastes but including treated
bio-medical wastes.
•Collection
•Storage
•Processing
•Disposal
155

Collection of municipal solid wastes
• Littering of municipal solid waste shall be prohibited in
cities, towns and in urban areas notified by the State
Governments. To prohibit littering and facilitate
compliance, the following steps shall be taken by the
municipal authority, namely
• Organizing house-to-house collection of municipal solid
wastes through any of the methods, like community bin
collection (central bin), house-to-house collection,
collection on regular pre-informed timings and scheduling
by using musical bell of the vehicle.
156

•Devising collection of waste from slums and
squatter areas or localities including hotels,
restaurants, office complexes and commercial
areas.
•Wastes from slaughter houses, meat and fish
markets, fruits and vegetable markets, which are
biodegradable in nature, shall be managed to
make use of such wastes.
157

•Bio-medical wastes and industrial wastes shall
not be mixed with municipal solid wastes and
such wastes shall follow the rules separately
specified for the purpose.
•Collected waste from residential and other areas
shall be transferred to community bin by hand-
driven carts or other small vehicles.
158

• Construction or demolition wastes or debris shall be
separately collected and disposed of following proper
norms. Similarly, wastes generated at dairies shall be
regulated in accordance with the State laws.
• Waste (garbage, dry leaves) shall not be burnt.
• Stray animals shall not be allowed to move around
waste storage facilities or at any other place in the city
or town
159

Storage of municipal solid wastes
• Municipal authorities shall establish and maintain storage
facilities in such a manner, as they do not create unhygienic
and unsanitary conditions around it. Following criteria shall
be taken into account while establishing and maintaining
storage facilities, namely:
• Storage facilities shall be created and established by taking
into account quantities of waste generation in a given area
and the population densities. A storage facility shall be so
placed that it is accessible to users.
160

• Storage facilities to be set up by municipal authorities or any
other agency shall be so designed that wastes stored are not
exposed to open atmosphere and shall be aesthetically
acceptable and user-friendly.
• Storage facilities or ‘bins’ shall have ‘easy to operate’ design
for handling, transfer and transportation of waste. Bins for
storage of bio-degradable wastes shall be painted green,
those for storage of recyclable wastes shall be painted white
and those for storage of other wastes shall be painted black.
161

•Manual handling of waste shall be
prohibited. If unavoidable due to
constraints, manual handling shall be
carried out under proper precaution with
due care for safety of workers.
162

Processing of municipal solid wastes
• Municipal authorities shall adopt suitable technology or
combination of such technologies to make use of wastes so
as to minimize burden on landfill. Following criteria shall be
adopted, namely
• The biodegradable wastes shall be processed by composting,
vermicomposting, anaerobic digestion or any other
appropriate biological processing for stabilization of wastes.
• Mixed waste containing recoverable resources shall follow
the route of recycling.
163

•Incineration with or without energy recovery can
also be used for processing wastes in specific
cases.
Municipal authority or the operator of a facility
wishing to use other state-of-the-art technologies
shall approach the Central Pollution Control Board
to get the standards laid down before applying for
grant of authorization.
164

Disposal of municipal solid wastes
• Land filling shall be restricted to non-biodegradable, inert
waste and other waste that are not suitable either for
recycling or for biological processing. Land filling shall also be
carried out for residues of waste processing facilities as well
as pre-processing rejects from waste processing facilities.
Land filling of mixed waste shall be avoided unless the same
is found unsuitable for waste processing. Under unavoidable
circumstances or till installation of alternate facilities, land
filling shall be done following proper norms.
165

Managing Non-biodegradable Hazardous solid
waste (NBDSW)
• Non-biodegradable solid waste (NBDSW) - It covers a
variety of materials ranging from asbestos to Zinc
batteries. Polythene and its related compounds are
the most commonly found solid waste materials in
urban environs. Many non-biodegradable solid waste
materials are known to cause considerable
environmental hazards when released into land, water
and atmosphere
166

Coastal environment and social waste management
•Solid waste related problems prevail more in
megalopolis and the dangers reach great heights
in coastal cities. Solid wastes of domestic and
industrial units are considered major pollutants
of coastal regions of India.
167

Waste Management at source
Source of waste generation Action to be taken
Household • Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, on the
streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, into the drains or water
bodies
• Keep food waste/biodegradable waste in a non corrosive
container with a cover (lid) Keep dry, recyclable waste in a bin
or bag or a sack
• Keep domestic hazardous waste if and when generated
separately for disposal at specially notified locations
168

Multi-storeyed buildings commercial
complexes private societies
• Provide separate community bin or
bins large enough to hold
food/biodegradable waste and
recyclable waste generated in the
building or society.
• Direct the members of the association
to deposit their waste in community bin
Slums • Use community bins provided by local
body for deposition of food and
biodegradable waste
169

Shops, offices, institutions, etc • If situated in a commercial complex,
deposit the waste in bins provided by
the association
Hotels & restaurants • The container used should be strong,
not more than 100 litre in size, should
have a handle on the top or handles on
the sides and a rim at the bottom for
easy handling
170

Vegetable & Fruit Markets • Provide large containers, which match
with transportation system of the local
body.
• Shop keepers not to dispose of the
waste in front of their shops or open
spaces. Deposit the waste as and when
generated into the large container placed
in the market.
171

Meat & fish markets • Not to throw any waste in front of their shops or
open spaces around. Keep non-corrosive
container/containers not exceeding 100-litre capacity
with lid handle and the rim at the bottom and
deposit the waste in the said containers as and when
generated.
• Transfer the contents of this container into a large
container provided by the association
172

Street food vendors • Not to throw any waste on the street,
pavement or open spaces. Keep bin or bag for
the storage of waste that generates during
street vending activity
• Preferably have arrangements to affix the
bin or bag with the hand–cart used for
vending.
173

Marriage halls, community halls,
kalyanamandapas
• Not to throw any solid waste in their
neighbourhood, on the streets, open
spaces, and vacant lands, into the drains
or water bodies.
• Provide a large container with lid
which may match with the
transportation system of the local body
and deposit all the waste generated in
the premises in such containers.
174

Hospitals, Nursing homes, etc • Not to throw any solid waste in their
neighbourhood, on the streets,open spaces, and
vacant lands, into the drains or water bodies.
• Not to dispose off the biomedical waste in the
municipal dust bins or other waste collection or
storage site meant for municipal solid waste.
• Store the waste as per the directions
contained in the government of India, Ministry
of Environment Biomedical Waste
(Management & Handling) Rules, 1998.
175

Construction/ demolition waste • Not to deposit construction waste or
debris on the streets, footpaths,
pavements, open spaces, water bodies
etc.
Store the waste within the premises or
with permission of the authorities just
outside the premises without
obstructing the traffic preferably in a
container if available through the local
body or private contractors
176

Garden waste • Compost the waste within the garden,
if possible Trim the garden waste once
in a week on the days notified by the
local body.
• Store the waste into large bags or bins
for handing over to the municipal
authorities appointed for the purpose
on the day of collection notified.
177

Waste management in India
• Waste management in India falls under the purview of the
Union Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
(MoEF&CC). In 2016 this ministry released the Solid Wastage
Management (SWM) Rules, 2016, these rules replaced the
Municipal Solid Wastages (Management and Handling)
Rules, 2000 which had been in place for 16 years.This
national policy is notable in that it has acknowledged and
included the informal sector (waste pickers) into the waste
management process for the first time.
178

Household waste generation and composition
179
Small-town waste separation initiative in Idukki District, Kerala

E-waste in India
• The global e-waste monitor, a collaboration between
the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and
the United Nations University, estimated that India
generated 1.975 million tonnes of e-waste in 2016
• According to the Associated Chambers of Commerce
and Industry (ASSOCHAM) rapid economic growth and
changing consumer behavior was likely to increase e-
waste generation in India to 5.2 million tonnes per
year by 2020.
180

Solid Waste Management
Solid Waste Management Rules were inaugurated in 2016
• Waste segregation at source is mandatory. Households are
required to separate waste into three streams - Organic or
Biodegradable waste, Dry waste (such as plastic, paper,
metal and wood), and Domestic Hazardous waste (diapers,
napkins, mosquito repellents, cleaning agents). Further,
bulk waste generators such as hotels and hospitals are
expected to treat organic waste either onsite or by
collaborating with the urban local body.
181

• Municipalities and urban local bodies have been directed to
include informal waste pickers and rag pickers into their
waste management process. This is the first time that
national policy has acknowledged and included the informal
sector into the waste management process. India has over
1.5 million subsistence informal waste pickers and including
them into the formal waste management system represents
an opportunity for urban local bodies to streamline their
operations, while provide the waste pickers with better
income opportunities.
182

• Manufacturers of fast-moving consumer goods FMCG that
use non-biodegradable packaging are required to put in
place a system to collect the packaging waste generated
due to their production.
• Urban local bodies have been given a provision to charge
bulk generators a user fee to collect and process their
waste. Additionally spot fines may be levied on people
burning garbage or discarding it in public places.
183

• No non-recyclable waste having a calorific value of
1,500 Kcal/kg or more is permitted in landfills. These
wastes should either be utilized for generating energy
or for preparing refuse derived fuel. It may also be
used for co-processing in cement or thermal power
plants.
184

BIO MEDICAL WASTE
• Biomedical Waste Management, Environmentally
Sound Management of Medical Wastes in India,
overall objective of the project is to reduce and
ultimately eliminate the releases of unintentionally
produced persistent organic pollutants (UP-POPs) and
other globally harmful pollutants into the
environment
185

Salient features of Bio-Medical Waste Management
(Amendment) Rules, 2018 are as follows:
• Bio-medical waste generators including hospitals,
nursing homes, clinics, dispensaries, veterinary
institutions, animal houses, pathological laboratories,
blood banks, health care facilities, and clinical
establishments will have to phase out chlorinated
plastic bags (excluding blood bags) and gloves by
March 27, 2019
186

• All healthcare facilities shall make available the annual
report on its website within a period of two years
from the date of publication of the Bio-Medical Waste
Management (Amendment) Rules, 2018.
• Operators of common bio-medical waste treatment
and disposal facilities shall establish bar coding and
global positioning system for handling of bio-medical
waste in accordance with guidelines issued by the
Central Pollution Control Board by March 27, 2019.
187

• The State Pollution Control Boards/ Pollution Control
Committees have to compile, review and analyze the
information received and send this information to the
Central Pollution Control Board in a new Form (Form
IV A), which seeks detailed information regarding
district-wise bio-medical waste generation,
information on Health Care Facilities having captive
treatment facilities, information on common bio-
medical waste treatment and disposal facilities
188

• Every occupier, i.e. a person having administrative control
over the institution and the premises generating biomedical
waste shall pre-treat the laboratory waste, microbiological
waste, blood samples, and blood bags through disinfection
or sterilization on-site in the manner as prescribed by the
World Health Organization (WHO) or guidelines on safe
management of wastes from health care activities and WHO
Blue Book 2014 and then sent to the Common bio-medical
waste treatment facility for final disposal.
189

AIR POLLUTION
• The presence of one or more contaminants like dust, smoke,
mist and odor in the atmosphere which are injurious to
human beings, plants and animals.
Sources of air pollution
• Natural pollution - volcanic eruptions, forest fires, biological
decay.
• Man – made activities – Thermal power plants, agricultural
activities.
190

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION IN PERCENTAGE
• Vehicle exhaust is up to 30%
• Biomass burning is up to 20%
• Soil and road dust is up to 20%
• Industries is up to 15%
• Open waste burning is up to 15%
• Diesel generators is up to 10%
• Power plants is up to 5%
• Outside the urban airshed is up to 30%
191

Classification
•Primary pollutant – these are those emitted
directly in the atmosphere in harmful form like
CO, NO.
•Secondary pollutant – these may react with one
another or with the basic components of air to
form new pollutants.
192

Control Measures
Source control
• Use only unleaded petrol
• Use petroleum products and other fuels that have low sulphur and ash
content
• Plant trees along busy streets because they remove particulates and
carbon
• monoxide and absorb noise.
• Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city
centre.
• Use catalytic converters to help control the emissions of carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbons.
193

Control measures in Industrial centers
•Emission rates should be restricted to
permissible levels
•Incorporation of air pollution control
equipments in the design of the plant layout.
194

• GLOBAL ISSUES
• CLIMATE
• The average weather of an area.
• Causes of climate change
• Presence of green house gases
• Depletion of ozone gases.
• Effect of climate change
• Migration of animals
• Upsetting the hydrological cycles results in floods and droughts
• Changes in global pattern of winds
195

•Green house effect
•The progressive warming of earth surface due to
blanketing effect of man made
•CO2 in the atmosphere.
•Green house gases- causing global warming
•CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCs.
197

Effect on global warming
• Sea level
• Agriculture and forestry
• Water resources
• Terrestrial ecosystems
• Human health.
• Measures
• Reducing CO2 emission
• Utilizing renewable resources
• Plant more trees
• Adopt sustainable agriculture.
199

ACID RAIN
• The precipitation of CO2, SO2, and NO2 gases as pollutants in water.
200

Effects of acid rain
Human beings
• Destroy life – nervous, respiratory and digestive system
• Causes premature death from heart and lung disorders.
On Buildings
Corrosion - TajMahal, houses, statues, bridges, metals.
On terrestrial and Lake Ecosystem
• Reduces rate of photosynthesis, growth of crops, Fish population.
• And bio mass production.
201

•Control measures
• Clean combustion technologies
• Using pollution control equipments
• Replacement of coal by natural gas
• Liming of lakes and soils
202

Ozone depleting chemicals
• Chloro Fluro carbon, Hydro chloro fluoro carbon, Bromo
fluoroCarbon.
Effects
• On human health – Skin cancer, cataracts, allergies etc.
• On aquatic systems- phyto plankton, fish
• On materials- paints, plastics
• On climate – increasing the average temperature of the earth
surface.
204

Causes and Effects of O3 depletion
205

•Control Measures
• Replacing CFCs
• Use of methyl bromide – crop fumigant
206

Biodiversity
•The variety of life on Earth, its biological diversity
is commonly referred to as biodiversity.
•The number of species of plants, animals, and
microorganisms, the enormous diversity of
genes in these species, the different ecosystems
on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and
coral reefs are all part of a biologically diverse
Earth.
207

•Appropriate conservation and sustainable
development strategies attempt to
recognize this as being integral to any
approach to preserving biodiversity. Almost
all cultures have their roots in our biological
diversity in some way or form.
208

A healthy biodiversity offers many natural services
209
Ecosystems such as the Amazon rainforest are rich in
diversity. Deforestation threatens many species such as
the giant leaf frog, shown here

A healthy biodiversity provides a number of
natural services for everyone:
• Ecosystem services, such as
• Protection of water resources
• Soils formation and protection
• Nutrient storage and recycling
• Pollution breakdown and absorption
• Contribution to climate stability
• Maintenance of ecosystems
• Recovery from unpredictable events
210

• Biological resources, such as
• Food
• Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs
• Wood products
• Ornamental plants
• Breeding stocks, population reservoirs
• Future resources
• Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems
211

• Social benefits, such as
• Research, education and monitoring
• Recreation and tourism
• Cultural values
• That is quite a lot of services we get for free!
• The cost of replacing these (if possible) would be
extremely expensive. It therefore makes economic
and development sense to move towards
sustainability.
212

• A report from Nature magazine also explains that
genetic diversity helps to prevent the chances of
extinction in the wild (and claims to have shown proof
of this).
• To prevent the well known and well documented
problems of genetic defects caused by in-
breeding, species need a variety of genes to ensure
successful survival. Without this, the chances of
extinction increases.
213

• Prior term
• "Biodiversity" is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and
long established terms, species diversity and species richness.
• Alternate terms
• Biologists most often define biodiversity as the "totality
of genes, species and ecosystems of a region".An advantage of this definition
is that it seems to describe most circumstances and presents a unified view of
the traditional types of biological variety previously identified:
• taxonomic diversity (usually measured at the species diversity level)
• ecological diversity (often viewed from the perspective of ecosystem diversity)
• morphological diversity (which stems from genetic diversity and molecular
diversity)
• functional diversity (which is a measure of the number of functionally
disparate species within a population (e.g. different feeding mechanism,
different motility, predator vs prey, etc.) This multilevel construct is consistent
with Datman and Lovejoy
214

Distribution
• Biodiversity is not evenly distributed, rather it varies greatly across
the globe as well as within regions. Among other factors, the diversity
of all living things (biota) depends
on temperature, precipitation, altitude, soils, geography and the
presence of other species. The study of the spatial distribution
of organisms, species and ecosystems, is the science
of biogeography.[61][62]
215

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