Habilitation presentation 2011

1
Habilitation à Diriger de Recherches. Veronica BERMUDEZ BENITO
16 June 2011. université Aix Marseille. IM2NP
16/07/10Page 1
Copyright © NEXCIS – Tous droits réservés
NEXCIS Business Development
Draft V2, 13th September 2010
Habilitation à Diriger de Recherches
Veronica BERMUDEZ BENITO
16 June 2011

2
1. Summary
1. Why we are here?
2. State of the Art of Thin Film Solar cells
3. Research Project
1. Why choosing CIGS
2. Closing the gap
3. In(situ characterization
4. Previous Activity
1. Lithium Niobate
2. Periodic Poled Lithium Niobate
3. CdTe for PV
4. Modelling and Characterizing CIGS
devices
5. Some indicators
Agenda

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16/07/10Page 3
Thin Film Solar Cells for future

4
Why thin films in the future:
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2005 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
MarketShare
Novel devices
Other thin films
Thin films
Silicon thin films
Crystalline Si
Thin Films
> 15% in 2010 45% in 2020
Source: IEA 2010
Forecast from IEA (BLUE Map) in 2030 : towards a mix of technologies

5
Advantages of thin film PV
• Efficient and high performing materials
• Direct bandgap semiconductors
• Better energy output – kWh/KW
• CIGS record at 20%+ conversion
efficiency
• Significantly reduced costs
• Less material usage
• Potential for improving costs
throughout value chain
• Better aesthetics
• Roadmap of glass3to3glass and flexible
substrate

6
Solar Today
Google HQ -
Solar Project
Solar farm in Amstein, Germany
Utility Scale Commercial Systems

7
Solar Tomorrow: Building Integrated Photovoltaics
Power Buildings will become multi-$T market
• BIPV is the fastest growing sector of PV
• Building Integration leverages available surface area,
installation costs, and proximity to loads
Revolutionary products through efficient, durable thin-film solar cells
embedded into traditional building materials
• Current products unsuitable and not cost effective

8
BIPV Applications
• Roofing
• Most common BIPV application
today
• Sunshades
• Energy conservation and reduced
building operating costs
• Cooling load mitigation and glare
control
• Easiest retrofit for PV
• Overhead glazing (canopies,
skylights, atriums)
• Curtain wall / Facades

9
16/07/10Page 9
Between thin films Why CIGS?

10
State of the art in efficiency. Big gap between R&D and production
Who? Device Aperture Area Efficiency
Würth Solar CIGS (glass) 6500 13.0
AVANCIS CIGSS (glass) 4938 (26 x 26) 13.0 (15.5)
Solar Frontier CIGSS (glass) 3600 (30 x 30) 13.0 (17.2)
Solibro CIGS (glass) 6840 14.2
Global Solar CIGS (flexible) 8390 (3822) 10.5 (13.0)
Miasole CIGS (flexible)* > 1 m2 15.7
Solopower CIGS (flexible) 0.3m x 2.9m 12.0
First Solar cdTe (glass) 6623, high volume 11.3 (12.6)
* Sandwiched between two pieces of glass
Device/ Module Type Efficiency (%) Who?
Cells (0,5 – 1 cm2) > 18 to 20.3* NREL, ZSW, AIST, HZB, AGU,
ASC
Submodules (20 – 100 cm2) 15- 17* ZSW, ASC, HZB, Showa Shell
Prototype modules (0,35 – 0’7
m2)
13 – 16* Solar Frontier, Miasolé, Global
Solar, Avancis
Commercial Modules (0,7 m2) 12-13 Würth Solar, Solibro, Global
Solar, Solar Frontier, Avancis

11
Closing the gap between record efficiencies and commercial modules
Target 15%
6%
12%
20.3%
23%
Lab device
Challenging target
Closing the gap
Expanding Tech. Base
Closing the gap
Improvement of
fundamental material
knowledge
Derive measurable material
properties that are
predictive of device and
module performance
Model the relationship
between film growth and
material delivery
Industrial processes, beneficial impacts:
( higher throughput and yield
( higher degree of reliability and reproductibility
( higher module performance
In(Situ Procces
Diagnostics and Control
Better science(based
knowledge of
materials properties
Materials and photonic
interalation. Real time
diagnosis tools.

12
CIGS based devices. Facing the challenge
SCR
- Charge carriers are generated in absorber layer.
-Limited, by the absorber bulk quality, and electronic quality
of the absorber related interfaces.
-After charge separation at p-n junction, recombination
currents will dominate the transport, relaxing the impact of
other interfaces.
- More than 80% of performance losses is related to absorber
quality.

13
Crystal structure of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 –chalcopyrite3type3
Elemental
Binary
Ternary,…
Diamond
Si, Ge
Zincblende
Wurzite
CdTe, GaAs
Chalcopyrite
Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2

14
Cu3(In, Ga)3Se Ternary Alloys Molecularity (M) and Stoichiometry (S)
M = [Cu]/([In] + [Ga])
S = 2[Se]/ ([Cu] + 3([In]+[Ga]))
∆∆∆∆M = M (1; ∆∆∆∆S = S – 1
ALL high efficiency
CIGS devices have
∆∆∆∆M < 0 and ∆∆∆∆S > 0
Formation reaction
yCu2Se + (13y) (In,Ga)2 Se3+∆∆∆∆Se Cuy ((In,Ga)13y)2 Se332y+∆∆∆∆Se
Se
Cu In, Ga
Intermetallic Plethora
(In,Ga)2 Se3
(In,Ga) Se
(In,Ga)4 Se3
Cu2 Se
Cu Se
Cu2 Se3
112
247
135
112 = CuInSe2
247 = Cu2In4Se7
135 = CuIn3Se5

15
CIGS Complex Non3Stoichiometric Thermochemical Phase Structure
S. Yamazoe, H. Kou and T. Wada, J. Mater. Res., in press.

16
Compositional Fluctuations and Carrier Transport in CIGS absorbers
Experimental results HAADF(TEM and
Nanoscale EDS
(5(10 nm chracteristic domain size
(Chemical composition fluctuations
across the domains
p1: Cu:In:Ga:Se = 31:14:7:48
p2: Cu:In:Ga:Se = 27:15:9:49
p3: Cu:In:Ga:Se = 30:15:6:49
(Dark domains are relatively Cu rich,
bright domains are relatively Cu poor.
JB Stanberry et al. APL 87, 2005, 121904
HAADF(TEM: High(Angle Annular Dark(Field Transmission Electron Microscopy
EDS: Energy(Dispersive X(Ray Spectroscopy

17
CIGS Non3Stoichiometry and Atypical Device Behavior
• Peculiar semiconductor behavior:
CIGS PV devices insensitive to % atomic composition variations
& extended defects
>19% efficiencies recently reported† over range:
• 0.69 ≤ [Cu]/([In]+[Ga]) ≤ 0.98 (Group I/III ratio)
• 0.21 ≤ [Ga]/([Ga]+[In]) ≤ 0.38 (Group III alloy ratio: Eg
• Empirical Observations
• CIGS PV devices are always copper deficient compared to α(CuInSe2
• Compositions lie in the equilibrium α+β2(phase domain
†Jackson et al., Prog. PV, Wiley & Sons, 2007.

18
Characteristics of an Ideal CIGS Manufacturing process and state of the
art of CIGS synthesis
• CIGS Manufacturing method should provide a high device(quality material
• Ability to create intrinsic defect structures limiting recombinations; role of
order(disorder transitions?
• Ability to control Group III(VI composition gradients
• Control of extrinsic doping
• Low high processing Rates
• Low thermal budget
• High materials utilization
Process Steps, precursor Characteristics
Multistage coevaporation Binary chalcogenide
compounds
Reduction of Se utilisation
and In incorporation
Reactive annealing pure metal
films (PVD, plating…)
Sputtered metal or alloy films
followed by high T annealing
in Se/S
Complex intermetallic
alloying. Uncontrolled
segregation
Reactive annealing Se/S
containing precursors
Incorporate Se followed from
RTP
Multi-step reaction kinetics
Help Se in-diffusion
Reactive annealing particle
precursors
Printed particles followed by
high T annealing in Se/S
Difficult recrystallization
kinetics

19
Intrinsic defects stronlgy affect optoelectronic properties. Growth
conditions

20
Influence of Se overpressure and crystal orientation on the
Luminescence and thus in electronic chraacteristics
P3
P2
P1
Manuel Romero Courtesy

21
The complexity of mechanisms and unexpected relations. Source
materials and kinetics. Selenium case
Nominally same growth conditions, except Se
source:
( E( Se conventional evaporation Se target
( R(Se rf(plasma cracked Se(radical beam
( Differences in Voc, FF and Jsc.
( Differences in Na and Ga step profile
( Differences in surface roughness, grain size
and density of absorber.
Shogo Ishizuka, Akimasa Yamada,
Hajime Shibata, Paul Fons, Shigeru Niki.
Thin Solid Films, in press

22
The complexity of mechanisms and un expected relations. Source
materials and kinetics. Selenium case
Shogo Ishizuka, Akimasa Yamada, Hajime Shibata, Paul Fons,
Shigeru Niki. Thin Solid Films, in press
CdS is present at only near surface region of R(Se,
while for E(Se depth profiles of Cd and S exhibit a
broad distribution, due to presence of surface
crevices.
Ga and Se diffuses at Mo/Mo interfaces for R(Se.
EBIC shows a more buried pn(junction in E(Se as pn(
junction is formed in a deeper region near the Ga
gradient valley according to SIMS.
R( Se E( Se R( Se E( Se

23
Difficulties in identifying in(situ/in(line measurable material properties
Closing the gap
Improvement of fundamental
material knowledge
Derive measurable material properties
that are predictive of device and module
performance
Model the relationship between film
growth and material delivery
Industrial processes, beneficial impacts:
( higher throughput and yield
( higher degree of reliability and reproductibility
( higher module performance
In(Situ Procces Diagnostics and
Control
Better science(based knowledge
of materials properties
Materials and photonic
interalation. Real time diagnosis
tools.

24
16/07/10Page 24
Previous activity

25
Education
Degree: Licence in Physics (5 years), obtained in 1996 at Autonoma University of
Madrid (UAM)
Speciality in Optics and Materials Structure,
Master degree: Optics and Materials Structure, obtained in 1996 at Autonoma
University of Madrid
Subject: “Study and characterization of domain structure of LiNbO3”.
PhD Thesis Materials Science, obtained in 1998 at Autonoma University of Madrid
Subject: “ Obtention and Characterization of Periodic Structures in LiNbO3 single
crystals doped with Er e Yb”.
Realized in the Crystal Growth Laboratory (CGL) of the Materials Physics
Department of the UAM
Thesis Director: Prof. Ernesto Dieguez
Highest qualification and Extraordinary Prize of the University for Thesis in Science.

26
Experience
1995(1998 PhD Thesis in the Crystal Growth Laboratory of Materials Physics
Department at UAM (Spain)
1999(2000 Laboratory of Advanced Technologies (DEIN/SPE/GCO) at CEA(LETI in
Saclay (France).
European Postdoctoral fellow within Marie Curie Program in the 5th EU Program.
2000(2001 Materials Physics Department, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid (Spain)
Post(doctoral fellow
2001(2006 Materials Physics Department, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid (Spain)
Researcher in the Tenure Track “Ramon y Cajal” Program. Transformed to Assistant
Professor in 2005.
2005(2009 Institute for the Research and Development of Photovoltaic Energy (IRDEP)
EDF R&D, CNRS, ENSCP mix Institute, Chatou (France)
Researcher, Project Manager and Optoelectronic Characterization Laboratory Head
2005(2007 as “Poste Rouge” in CNRS
2007(2009 as Engineer(Researcher in EDF R&D
2009(present NEXCIS Photovoltaic Innovation, Rousset (France)
Senior Scientist

27
Very Promising Basic Material Properties
Possibility of micro-controlling Properties
by tailoring Composition and Doping
+
+Tailoring of Different Sample
Structures
A WIDE RANGE OF INTERESTING
PHOTONIC APPLICATIONS

28
Peculiar trajectory
Ferroelectric domains
in Lithium Niobate
Doping to control
domains and
laser properties
Semiconductors
for energy
Thin films for
photovoltaic
CdTe and CIGS
Closing the gap:
( Deep understanding
( In line characterization
Molecular
motors
Based in understanding relationship
between:
3 Material physico3chemical properties
and growth (preparation) process and
history .
(Materials physico3chemical properties
and optoelectronic defect.
3 Defects and growth process and history
Missed in past:
Development of characterization
methods for process monitoring
as the way to control defects
formation. Photonics

29
16/07/10Page 29
Luthium Niobate and the way to fashion their
ferroelectric domain structure for
optoelectronic applications

30
Lithium Niobate a decathlon winner
LN structure has been described as a very distorted perovskite with a tilt rotation of
the oxygen triangles around the c axis. Intrinsic defects at the origin of their
properties
The chemical formula Li0.925(8)Nb1.07(1)O2.64(2) obtained during our
work suggest the coexistence of lithium and oxygen vacancies;
and their presence is strongly determined by the thermal history of
the crystal.
48.4 mol% Li2O
Congruent
composition

31
Ferroelectric domains in lithium niobate
HF:HNO3 (1:2 by vol) at 110°C during 10 min.
19F mapping distribution by SIMS (skils adquired
during my PhD stages in Padova University)
Ferroelectric Paraelectric
C(axis

32
Off centered Czochralski growth of PPLN and APPLN
Λ = 2 vpull/vrot

33
Stoichiometric LiNbO3 impacting properties
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
316.30
316.32
316.34
316.36
316.38
316.40
316.42
316.44
316.46
316.48
316.50
316.52
316.54
316.56
V(Å
3
)
Temperature (K)
Mínimos locales de Volumen de celda
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
0.9173
0.9174
0.9175
0.9176
0.9177
0.9178
0.9179
100 K
SpontaneousStrain
Temperature (K)
58 K
Structural Anomaly in LN at 55K observed with Neutron
diffraction, strongly related with stoichiometry
Λ
ΛΛΛΛtheory ΛΛΛΛexperimental Deviation
0wt% 6.63 6.63 0%
2wt% 6.63 3.2 48%
4wt% 6.63 2.55 39%
5.2wt% 6.63 2.05 30.9%
7wt% 6.63 ------

34
Controlling the colour and the intensity
Generation of 8 different wavelength from only one pump source
System based on a APPLN:Nd crystal
VR
Mirrors
Pump
R
B
VGVB
2
lC
G
( ) [ ]Ennxnn )()2/(%)21()()2/(2 '3'3
33
'''
λλσλλλ −−Λ+−Λ=
Λ= Domain period
σ33 = Electro-optic coefficient
λ= Fundamental wavelength (SHG)
x % = duty cycle

35
Thin Films Solar cells based in II3VI compounds”
Cd(g) + Te2(g) Cd(g) + Te2(g) Cd(g) + Te2(g)
Cd(g) + Te2(g) Cd(g) + Te2(g)
Cd(g) Te2(g)
Bi2Te3-x
(s)
CdTe(s)
Subst.
Cd(g) Te2(g)
Bi2Te3-x
(s)
CdTe(s)
Subst.
Cd(g) Te2(g)
Bi2Te3-x
(s)
CdTe(
s)
Subst.
Thermal process for the wiskers
formation under VLS process.
Using this properties of Bi2Te3(CdTe
co(evaporation in a controlled
way it should be possible to obtain
ordered arrays of hexagonal rod
CdTe and thus to enhance
performance of final electronic
systems
C. M. Ruiz, E. Saucedo, O. Sanz and V. Bermúdez
Journal of Physical Chemistry., in press

36
16/07/10Page 36
Materials for Energy Conversion.
Thin film solar cells
CdTe
Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2

37
CdTe: Bi. New intraband material?
Extremely high Jsc (26.31 mA/cm2) for 600 mV of Voc in the case of a CdTe:Bi device with
concentration at 1017 at/cm3.
10
16
10
17
10
18
10
19
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9
10
10
10
11
undoped CdTe
Resistivity(ΩΩΩΩ.cm)
Bi conc (at./cm
3
)
First Principles study of Bi doped CdTe
thin film solar cells: electronic and
optical properties Y. Seminovski et al.
ETSI UPM, Madrid

38
16 June 2011. université Aix Marseille. IM2NP 38
Equivalent circuit ⇒⇒⇒⇒ separate each layer to identify different problems in
process
Optoelectronic diagnostic of a serial resistance based problem. (Back diode)
CIS
CdS
ZnO
Mo
RC1
R//ZnO
Rjonction
R//Mo
MoS2
R?ZnO
RC2
RMoS2
Iph ID1 ID2
Rsh
RC4
RC3
Rsh2
IRCIS
CdS
ZnO
Mo
RC1
R//ZnO
Rjunction
R//Mo
Mo(Se,S)2
RZnO
RC2
RMoS2
Iph ID1 ID2
Rsh
RC4
Rc3
RDR
IR
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
420
480
540
600
660
720
Voc
Rs
eff(%)
Voc(mV)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Rs(Ohm/cm
2
)
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Experimental data sample D
Fitted curve with reverse diode
Curve without reverse diode
J(mA/cm
2
)
V(mV)
s
R
ph
R
J
ph
J IR
I
II
n
I
II
n
kT
q
V +












 −
−




 −
=
00
lnln
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
0.0
2.0n
4.0n
6.0n
8.0n
10.0n
Capacitance(F)
V bias
(V )
1611C -2-3d
1439-19-2-4a
1456-2-3d
1429-19-1-1a
13.31.936.3376
12.53.448.6594
5.355.361.8603
4.39.069.8671
RSEffFFVoc

39
S at the origin of CuxSe and thus origin of the back diode through CuIn5S8
Cu(S,Se)
Before chemical etching
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
(3)
(2)
Norm.Int.(a.u.)
Raman shift (cm
-1
)
(1)
Cu(S,Se)
CuIn5S8
Cu(S,Se)
grain
CIS grain
1,15 1,20 1,25 1,30 1,35 1,40 1,45 1,50 1,55 1,60 1,65 1,70
1
10
100
Rs(max)
2Se/(Cu+3In)
Rs increases significantly for m >1.3
Agrees with compositional range leading
to formation of CuSe secondary phase
CuSe at back layer region likely leading to
formation of secondary phases (CuS +
CuIn5S8) degrading Rs
Experimental data for very high Rs values
suggest relationship with presence of CuIn5S8

40
In situ monitoring techniques. Precursor composition monitoring
m
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Cu-Se
Ramanintensity(a.u.)
Ramanshift(cm
-1
)
Cu-Se
Se
OVC
CISe
Problem: strong signal from H2O
(aqueous electrolyte solution) in 100
– 250 cm(1 spectral range
Possibility to define optimal values of
I(CISe) & I (Se +CuSe) corresponding
to m ≥ 1.3 (in spite of high noise level)
in(situ detection of deviations of m
below 1.3
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
180000
200000
220000
240000
260000
IntensitatRayleigh(a.u.)
2Se/(Cu+3In)
Decrease of IR at higher values of m:
Possibility to detect deviations of m also
above optimal range of values
1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7
Intensity(Se+CuSemodes)
2Se/(Cu+3In)

41
Excitation with laser probe from BWtek system (785 nm): quasi resonant
excitation conditions in S-rich CuIn(S,Se)2 alloy:
Reduction of tint in more than
one order of magnitude (down to
seconds)
Efficient excitation of several
modes (in addition to A1 peak)
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
E(L)/B2
(L)
E(L)
A1
Intensity(a.u.)
Raman shift (cm
-1
)
E(L)/B2
(L)
2nd order
Alternative: Raman in quasiresonant conditions (matched to a given composition):
Case example: Analysis of composition of S rich CuIn(Sx,Se13x)2

42
Fitting of Intensity of E(L)/B2(L) mode at about 340
cm(1: exponential dependence of intensity of
bands on alloy composition
High sensitivity for detection of deviations
of values of x in S rich alloys
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
y = A1*exp(x/t1) + y0
Chi^2/DoF = 1584241.43866
R^2 = 0.99927
y0 4622.04913 ±941.66472
A1 0.12088 ±0.05329
t1 7.29108 ±0.23256
E(L)/B2(L)intensity(a.u.)
[S] %
Case example: Analysis of composition of S rich CuIn(Sx,Se13x)2
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
[S] = 70%
[S] = 77%
[S] = 86%
[S] = 89%
[S] = 91%
Intensity(a.u.)
Raman shift (cm
-1
)
[S] = 100%
1/2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
intensity(a.u.)
Ramanshift(cm
-1
)
[S]=100%
[S]=78%
[S]=89%
[S]=77%
[S]=70%
Moreover:
0,35 0,40 0,45 0,50 0,55 0,60 0,65
1,450
1,455
1,460
1,465
1,470
1,475
1,480
1,485
1,490
1,495
Exitonposition(eV)
Voc (V)
Voc tends to increase with EPL.

43
Coloured regions:
possibility to obtain
resonant excitation
with different lasers
Extension to alternative quaternary CIGS based alloys
Matching excitation wavelength to Eg: possibility to assess composition of
Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 alloys with different Ga/(In+Ga) and/or S/(S+Se) contents:
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,6
1,8
2,0
2,2
2,4
2,6
Gap(eV)
Ga/(In+Ga)
Laser
CuInSe2
1064nm
976nm
785nm
512nm
671nm
488nm
633nm
CuGaSe2
CuGaS2
CuInS2

44
NaCN etching
Removal Cu(S,Se)
secondary phases
RTP recrystallisation
under selenising and/or
sulphurising conditions
Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2
Electrodeposition
Metallic or CuInSe2
precursors
CBD of CdS buffer layer
RF-sputtering of ZnO
window layer
Electrodeposition based process
In3line/ in3situ: Raman scattering monitoring of ED3CIGS films and
processes
Identification of phases
and alloys (chemical composition)
Monitoring of crystalline quality & Ga, S and Se
incorporation
Assessment of NaCN etching
(disappearance of Cu(S,Se) modes)
& CdS deposition

45
Photoluminescence set3up
13 Spectroscopy: study of radiative defects and quality of material
Metzger and Repins, et al. Thin
Solid Films 517 (2009) p.2360, and
E MRS, May 2008

46
Photoluminescence set3up
23 Mappping: process control
CdS
ZnO
CISSe

47
16/07/10Page 47
Some indicators

48
Some numbers
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
NumberofPublications,ISI
Year of Publication
Total ISI papers: 99
Sum of Times Cited: 741
Average Citations per Item: 7.5 (6.1)
h(index: 13
Conference Proceedings: 30
Oral Presentations: 14
Invited presentations: 7
Keynotes: 1
3 Patents (submitted)

49
Awards
1) PhD Thesis Prize Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 1998/1999
2) Finalist in “The EU Descartes Prize 2003” within the frame of the European
Project “Molecules in Motion: hydrogen bond(assembled molecular
machines (MOLS(IN(MOTION).
3) Young Prize 2004 in Science and Technology by Universidad Complutense de
Madrid Foundation
4) 2007 Schieber Prize from International Organization on Crystal Growth. With
invited Plenary Conference. http://www.iocg.org/
“Engineered Periodic Poled Lithium Niobate Structures doped with Rare
Earth for multi self(frequency conversion “

50
Others
2 thesis co(supervised (1 France, 1 Spain)
7 Stages supervised in France and Spain.
14 Seminars in France, Italy, Belgium, Spain, Germany
Associate Editor of Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Expert for AERES and EU in FP7
Pormoting Women in Science and Engineering

51
We are just speaking of produced watts?

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