A systematic literature review on outcomes associated with believing in free will

1. 1
A Systematic Literature Review on Outcomes Associated with Believing in Free Will
By
William Tomos Edwards
Jump to visual breakdown of results in Table 1
Literature Search Method One
I searched Scholars Portal Articles searching “Anywhere” with the search terms “Vohs” AND
“Schooler” in two separate fields. In this regard I could try and find every study that cited the
controversial and widely cited study by Vohs and Schooler (2008) concerning morality and
belief in free will. This returned 19 pages of results, sorted by relevance. I went through all 19
pages and selected every study that appeared to deal with belief in free will and behavioural
outcomes based on the title of the study.
Literature Search Method Two
I used the same method as above only with the search terms “Free Will” and “Belief.” 11,630
pages were returned. I went through the pages in serial order, selecting articles with the same
method as above until page 50. By that page the rate of relevant articles per page had been at 0
for over 20 pages. I used a random number generator function to select 15 more pages to
review (Appendix 1). No relevant studies were found.
Analysis and Assessment of Literature
One more additional relevant study (Crone and Levy, 2019) did not appear in any of the
searches described above but was brought to my attention through public debate. I have
included it.
Of the studies obtained through these methods only original primary research where the
authors obtained and analyzed original data were included. I read over the abstract of each
study and made notes about the results/conclusions. If the abstract did not give a thorough and
concise overview of straightforward findings then I looked through the results. Whether the
researchers were satisfied with analyses and results at a simple bivariate level, or decided to
drill deeper with multivariate techniques and so on, I would always privilege the researchers
reporting and conclusions above my own assessment of their data.
Some studies were excluded because they had methodological issues or they had results that
were trivial with regards to the debate about whether or not we should believe in free will.

2. 2
Examples can be found in the “Excluded Studies” section of the References. Other studies didn’t
offer conclusions on the utility of believing in free will, but they did shed light on the nature of
people’s beliefs in free will. Under References they can be found in the section “The Norms and
Nature of People’s Belief in Free Will.”
In total, 65 studies have been included that directly answer questions pertaining to the utility of
believing in free will. I have classified these studies based on how their results link belief in free
will to six different areas of the human condition. Table 1 and the sections that follow it give an
overview of how many studies returned results in favour of and against believing in free will in
each of those 6 areas. Some studies indicated that believing in free will supports behaviours
that could have negative or positive consequences depending on context. Other studies
indicated null results for believing in free will. I tried to classify studies in as precise and
parsimonious a manner as was possible. Under references the studies are also arranged
according to which of the 6 areas they pertain to, and a colour coded label is included next to
each study indicating what kind of results from Table 1 are returned.
The Norms and Nature of People’s Belief in Free Will
The literature makes it clear that average people lean heavily towards compatibilism or
contradictory and confused thinking (Feltz, 2015), depending on the optimism or pessimism of
ones evaluation of the literature and personal view of the matter.
Taking the situation apart, it’s easy to see that a significant swath of the population will not
understand the precise mechanics of the debate nor the definitions and relationships
concerning “compatibilism,” “incompatibilism,” and “libertarian free will.”
Among student samples that are likely to have a better understanding of this discussion than
the general population, compatibilist and libertarian free will tendencies are common
(Sarkissian et al., 2010), and when research measures force the general population to think
more deeply about the topic a distinctly compatibilist tendency emerges (Clark et al., 2019;
Vonasch et al., 2018).
The literature makes it clear that most people are going with their intuition. It is intuitive to
perceive that there is cause and effect, and effects follow from causes. It is also intuitive to
perceive that you are an “agent” with free will. Most people are simply embracing
contradictory intuitions and living with the paradox in a manner very similar to Dan Dennett
and Sean Carrol.
It cannot be emphasized enough that most people are taking a very intuitive approach to the
topic, and not willing, able, or interested to take a rigorously analytical approach.

3. 3
Regarding this
aspect of the
human condition
Believing in free will is associated
with
Number of studies
returning that
result/conclusion
As a percentage
Behaviour and
Outlook towards
Others
Compassionate, pro-social (PrSoc) 13
54.17%
Cruel, anti-social (AnSoc) 3
12.5%
Neutral behaviours and outlook
(NBO)
6
25%
No relationship (NRBO) 2
8.33%
Success in Life
Adaptive behaviour/outcomes (Adap) 7
50%
Maladaptive behaviour/outcomes
(Mala)
3
21.43%
Neutral behaviour/outcomes (NSL) 3
21.43%
No relationship (NRSL) 1
7.14%
Punitive Attitudes
and Retribution
Decrease (DePun) 1
6.25%
Increase (InPun) 13
81.25%
No relationship (NRPA) 2
12.5%
Subjective Well
Being, Positive
Affect, Adaptive
Beliefs/Attitudes
Increase (InSJWB) 18
94.74%
Decrease (DeSJWB) 0
0%
No relationship (NRSJWB) 1
5.26%
Unfounded,
Tenuous Beliefs
Decrease (DeUten) 1
12.5%
Increase (InUten) 5
62.55%
No relationship (NRUten) 2
25%
Basic, Reflexive,
Adaptive
Responses (Neural
and Behavioural)
Facilitates (FacRef) 7
100%
Hinders (HinRef) 0
0%
No relationship (NRRef) 0
0%
Table 1: A breakdown of the results for and against believing in free will returned by research studies on
the topic. Jump to beginning of paper. Jump to section containing “multiple kinds of results.”

4. 4
Behaviour and Outlook towards Others
52% of studies in this area return results indicating that belief in free will is associated with
compassionate, pro-social behaviour and outlook towards others including feelings of gratitude
(MacKenzie et al., 2014), intuitive co-operation (Protzko et al., 2016), and reduced prejudice
(Zhao., 2014). 12% of studies have found belief in free will to be associated with cruel and anti-
social outlook and behaviour, including behaviour in an experimental game (Caspar et al.,
2017), perceiving people’s accidents as intentional (Genschow et al., 2019), and the construct
“right wing authoritarianism” (Carey et al., 2013). Belief in Free Will has been demonstrated to
be linked to things with a neutral moral character such as passionate love (Boudesseul et al.,
2016), risky decisions (Schrag, et al., 2016), and the personality traits openness,
conscientiousness, and emotional stability (Stillman et al., 2010). 8.33% of studies return null
results in this area. I have tried to be as non-partisan as possible in the classifications.
Success in Life
50% of studies in this area return results indicating that belief in free will is associated with
adaptive behaviours like dieting (Ent et al., 2014), academic performance (Feldman et al.,
2016), internal locus of control, and success on the job (Stillman et al., 2010). 21.43% of studies
return maladaptive outcomes such as belief in an external locus of control (Laurene et al.,
2011), lack of knowledge in math and the physical sciences (Mogi, 2013), and one study found
that addiction treatment providers who believe in the free-will model of addiction use more
drugs and alcohol than treatment providers who believe in the disease model (Schaler, 1997).
21.43% of studies return results demonstrating that belief in free will is associated with
behaviours and beliefs that could be adaptive or maladaptive based on the context such as
autonomous action instead of conformity (Alquist et al., 2013; Moynihan et al, 2019), and risky
decisions (Schrag et al., 2016). One Study found null results in this area with free will belief not
correlated with locus of control (Stroessner et al., 1990).
Punitive Attitudes and Retribution
81.25% of studies support results such that greater belief in free will is associated with greater
support and desire for punishments against wrong doers. Only one study found the opposite
conclusion (Viney et al., 1982). 12.5% of studies returned null results for free will belief and
retribution.
Subjective Well Being, Positive Affect, Adaptive Beliefs/Attitudes
94.74% of studies in this area return results indicating that those who believe in free will find
more meaning in life (Seto et al., 2015), are less anxious (Weisman et al., 2017), are confident in
their ability to make decisions (Feldman et al., 2014), are satisfied with their jobs (Feldman et

5. 5
al., 2018), and experience good subjective well-being and good mental health broadly
conceived (Crescioni et al., 2016). One study found that belief in free will had a null relationship
with satisfaction with life, stress, and depression when controlling for “belief in personal
control” (Gooding et al., 2018).
Unfounded, Tenuous Beliefs
62.55% of studies returned results indicating that believing in free will is associated with
believing in credulous things such as the paranormal (Mogi, 2013; 2014), dualism (Forstmann, &
Burgmer, 2018), and religiosity (Carey & Paulhus, 2013). One study found that treatment
providers who believe in free will with respect to addiction have a more rational world view
(Schaler, 1997). 25% of studies have indicated no relationship between belief in free will and
measures like religiosity and religious coping (Brown, 2017; Yilmaz et al., 2018)
Basic, Reflexive, Adaptive Responses (Neural and Behavioural)
In this area of the literature 100% of studies indicate that reduced belief in free will -particularly
when experimentally lowered through researcher manipulations- results in basic, low level
responses and mechanisms being compromised. This includes participants being unable to
effectively regulate their approach to simple cognitive tasks (Rigoni et al., 2013) seemingly due
to appropriate neural mechanisms not acting as they should (Goto et al., 2014; 2018). Neural
markers of error detection (Rigoni et al., 2015), and the readiness potential (Rigoni et al., 2011)
have been shown to be compromised in people who were induced to disbelieve in free will.

6. 6
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7. 7
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8. 8
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9. 9
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10. 10
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Multiple Kinds of Results
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11. 11
Genschow, O., Rigoni, D., & Brass, M. (2019). The hand of god or the hand of maradona?
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(InSJWB) (InUten)
Monroe, A. E., Brady, G. L., & Malle, B. F. (2017). This Isn’t the free will worth looking
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doi:10.1177/1948550616667616 (NRBO) (NRPA) (InSJWB)
Moynihan, A. B., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2017). Free, connected, and
meaningful: Free will beliefs promote meaningfulness through
belongingness. Personality and Individual Differences, 107(Complete), 54-65.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.11.006 (PrSoc) (InSJWB)
Moynihan, A. B., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2019). Lost in the crowd: Conformity as
escape following disbelief in free will. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49(3), 503-520.
doi:10.1002/ejsp.2499 (NSL) (InSJWB)
Weisman de Mamani, A., Weintraub, M. J., Gurak, K., Maura, J., Martinez de Andino, A.,
& Brown, C. A. (2017). Free will perceptions, religious coping, and other mental health
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Schaler, J. a. (1997). Addiction beliefs of treatment providers: Factors explaining
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(DeUten)
Schrag, Y., Tremea, A., Lagger, C., Ohana, N., Mohr, C., Schrag, Y., . . . Mohr, C. (2016). Pro free
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doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152297 (NBO) (NSL)

12. 12
Stillman, T. F., Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., Lambert, N. M., Fincham, F. D., & Brewer, L. E.
(2010). Personal philosophy and personnel achievement: Belief in free will predicts better job
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Stroessner, S. J., & Green, C. W. (1990). Effects of belief in free will or determinism on attitudes
toward punishment and locus of control. The Journal of Social Psychology, 130(6), 789-799.
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Yilmaz, O., Bahçekapili, H. G., & Harma, M. (2018). Different types of religiosity and lay
intuitions about free Will/Determinism in turkey. The International Journal for the Psychology of
Religion, 28(2), 89-102. doi:10.1080/10508619.2018.1425062 (NBO) (NRUten)
Zemel, O., Einat, T., & Ronel, N. (2018). Criminal spin, self-control, and desistance from crime
among juvenile delinquents: Determinism versus free will in a qualitative
perspective. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(15),
4739-4757. doi:10.1177/0306624X18781208 (PrSoc) (Adap)
The Norms and Nature of People’s Belief in Free Will
(Some studies from previous sections also included here)
Clark, C. J., Winegard, B. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2019). Forget the folk: Moral
responsibility preservation motives and other conditions for compatibilism. Frontiers in
Psychology, 10 doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00215 Compatibilism
Feltz, A. (2015). Experimental philosophy of actual and counterfactual free will
intuitions. Consciousness and Cognition, 36(Complete), 113-130.
doi:10.1016/j.concog.2015.06.001 Compatibilist and/or poor mental models
Forstmann, M., & Burgmer, P. (2018). A free will needs a free mind: Belief in substance dualism
and reductive physicalism differentially predict belief in free will and
determinism. Consciousness and Cognition, 63(Complete), 280-293.
doi:10.1016/j.concog.2018.07.003 Libertarian Free Will/ Compatibilism
Monroe, A. E., Dillon, K. D., & Malle, B. F. (2014). Bringing free will down to earth:
People’s psychological concept of free will and its role in moral
judgment. Consciousness and Cognition, 27(Complete), 100-108.
doi:10.1016/j.concog.2014.04.011 Compatibilist
Nahmias, E., Morris, S., Nadelhoffer, T., & Turner, J. (2005). Surveying freedom: Folk intuitions
about free will and moral responsibility. Philosophical Psychology, 18(5), 561-584.
doi:10.1080/09515080500264180 Compatibilism

13. 13
Vierkant, T., Deutschländer, R., Sinnott-Armstrong, W., & Haynes, J. (2019). Responsibility
without freedom? folk judgements about deliberate actions. Frontiers in
Psychology, 10 doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01133 semi-compatibilism.
Vonasch, A. J., Baumeister, R. F., & Mele, A. R. (2018). Ordinary people think free will is
a lack of constraint, not the presence of a soul. Consciousness and
Cognition, 60(Complete), 133-151. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2018.03.002 Most people are
Dan Dennett style Compatibilists
SARKISSIAN, H., CHATTERJEE, A., DE BRIGARD, F., KNOBE, J., NICHOLS, S., & SIRKER, S. (2010). Is
belief in free will a cultural universal? Mind & Language, 25(3), 346-358. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
0017.2010.01393.x Most students were believers in libertarian free will. Those who believe in
determinism tended to be compatibilist. Most student respondents tended towards libertarian
free will.
Excluded Studies
Chernyak, N., & Kushnir, T. (2014). The self as a moral agent: Preschoolers behave
morally but believe in the freedom to do otherwise. Journal of Cognition and
Development, 15(3), 453-464. doi:10.1080/15248372.2013.777843 Trivial and
tangential conclusions
Fahrenberg, J., & Cheetham, M. (2008). Assumptions about human nature and the impact of
philosophical concepts on professional issues: A questionnaire-based study with 800 students
from psychology, philosophy, and science. Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology, 14(3), 183-201.
Retrieved
from http://resolver.scholarsportal.info/resolve/10716076/v14i0003/183_aahnatsfppas
Due to the way data is reported no meaningful conclusions can be drawn. Other reported
conclusions were of trivial significance.
Lau, S., Hiemisch, A., & Baumeister, R. F. (2015). The experience of freedom in decisions –
questioning philosophical beliefs in favor of psychological determinants. Consciousness and
Cognition, 33(Complete), 30-46. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2014.11.008 Conclusions with trivial
importance
Racine, E., Sattler, S., & Escande, A. (2017). Free will and the brain disease model of
addiction: The not so seductive allure of neuroscience and its modest impact on the
attribution of free will to people with an addiction. Frontiers in Psychology, 8
doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01850
Focused on how variables like education influence free will belief in the narrow context of
addiction. Doesn’t shed light on outcomes associated with belief and lack of belief in free will

14. 14
Vonasch, A. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2013). Implications of free will beliefs for basic theory and
societal benefit: Critique and implications for social psychology. British Journal of Social
Psychology, 52(2), 219-227. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.2012.02102.x Original data appears to be
collected and reported on here but this paper is technically a rebuttal and the original research
is not reported on with the normal rigor and procedures of a scientific study. For this reason it
is excluded.
Weisman de Mamani, A., Weintraub, M. J., Tauler, C. C., Gurak, K., Maura, J., Mejia, M.
G., & Sapp, S. (2014). Religion and free will perceptions as coping mechanisms in
caregivers of individuals with dementia: A review of the literature. Journal of Religion,
Spirituality & Aging, 26(2-3), 201-214. doi:10.1080/15528030.2013.829017 Literature
review with case study that seems to have methodological issues.

15. 15
Appendix 1
The following pages were randomly selected for review: Ten between p. 50 and p. 2000: 96,
1061, 1075, 1126, 1312, 1517, 1600, 1711, 1728, 1846.
Five between p. 10,000 and the last page: 10873, 10904, 10911, 11001, 11076.