Research paper - Authentic Asessment

Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 1
Authentic Assessment to Differentiate Language Acquisition from Learning Disabilities
Ximena Naranjo
EDCI Assessment
Kansas State University
May 13, 2014

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT TO DIFFERENCIATE LANGUAGE ACQUISITION FROM
LEARNING DISABILITIES
Introduction and Purpose
Acquiring a language enables people to have social interaction and understanding of one-another
in an evolving world. Indeed, acquiring English as a second or foreign language helps
people do well socially and academically. English language teachers who are in charge of this
process, help students develop cognitive, social, and emotional skills so that they can
comprehend daily problems and solve them through meaningful communication. But, what if the
goal is not achieved? What should ESL/EFL teachers look for as a cause of the problem? Digging
for the enigma can be a frustrating experience for students and an unsatisfying practice for
teachers. Therefore, teachers must be knowledgeable to identify whether the students are going
through a process of language acquisition or facing a learning disability.
The domains of “The Ecuadorian in-service English teachers’ standards” require
educators to be well-informed of the different language acquisition theories, cultural differences,
assessment techniques, and social issues to guide learners in an effective way. (EIES, 2012).
Though I concede that teaching methods and specialized assessment techniques help instructors
to identify and differentiate the process of second language acquisition from a learning disability,
I still insist that teachers need to have a better understanding of the characteristics that these
learners present to be able to provide students with necessary accommodations or refer them to
more specialized people if that is the case. Therefore in this paper I will discuss different tools
and strategies teachers can use to identify language learning problems. I will concentrate my
attention on authentic assessments as the most appropriate strategies as they are used for
instruction and evaluation of ESL/EFL learning process.

Literature Review
Language Acquisition
The process of first or second language acquisition is an important mechanism in the
development of human beings because language plays a significant role in communication.
Klingner (2008), states that language acquisition is a method of developing a language (first or
second), which is affected by external factors like social interaction, first language literacy,
attitude to the second language, and the type of students´ personalities among others. To put it
another way, language acquisition is a cognitive, social-emotional, and physical process of
developing language related to external factors.
Ganchow (2001) states that cognitive, affective, and individual variables determine the
time and level of second language development. She also mentions “motivation, anxiety, self-esteem,
and tolerance of ambiguity, risk-taking, aptitude, age, and gender” (Ganchow. 2001. p.
81) as key components of individual differences that can affect the process of learning a
language. Indeed, it is highly likely that students might get anxious about making mistakes in
grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, or when trying to understand the teacher, as Schwarz said in
the article “Learning Disabilities and Foreign language Learning” (Schwarz, 2013).
Robert Gardner, who was cited by Ganschow et al., (2001) in their review, also
considered intelligence, language aptitude, motivation, and situational anxiety as variables that
can lead to second language learning. Yet an analysis of the multiple variables affecting second
language acquisition reveals that anxiety is a typical reaction of students who find it difficult to
succeed in the process of learning a second language, which is also related to self–esteem as a
predictor of overall achievement, a concept with which Schwarz and Ganschow agree in their
investigations (Schwarz, 1997; Ganschow, et al., 2001). It follows then, that students´ reactions

to their fear of communication, tests, or negative evaluations could be misinterpreted as a
learning disability. Therefore, there is a need of accurate assessing tools to identify from the
bewildering characteristics of learning a second language or learning disabilities (see appendix 1)
to support the process in a more meaningful way.
Learning Disability
Whereas language acquisition is related to the environment, learning disability is a
problem within the person. Sharon DiFino states, “A learning disability is a neurological disorder
that often runs in families and affects ones learning in one or more areas” (DiFino, 2004, p. 391).
Along the same lines, the same author suggests that teachers use special techniques and
instruments to identify the type of disability students may have (DiFino, 2004). Consequently,
teachers should apply careful techniques and special accommodations to identify leaning disable
students and support their education.
Leonore Ganschow (2001) emphasizes that a linguistic code deficit could be identified as
a characteristic of learning disability in first and second language as it is stated in the following
description:
“Children who have a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes
involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written which disorder may
manifest itself in imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do
mathematical calculations” (Ganschow, et al., 2001, p.82).
Table 1. in the appendix section summarizes the degree of correspondence of the characteristics
of second language acquisition and learning disabilities, which may confuse teachers when trying
to identify students’ difficulties.
Pre-Assessing to Determine Students with a Disability

Researchers have long assumed that a good set of assessment tools is important to
pinpoint the children´s strengths and needs, and consequently determine the necessary
accommodations to facilitate children’s development. This literature review will describe three
types of strategies that can be used to identify both groups.
Modern Language Aptitude Test” MLAT
Proponents of “Modern Language Aptitude Test” MLAT (Ganschow et al., 2001, p. 531;
Ganschow et al., 2009, p. 80; DiFino, 2004, p.392) identify it as a good measuring tool for
prognostic and diagnostic of learning disabilities between second language learners based on
communication skills, specifically speaking and listening. The MLAT consists of five subtests:
(a) number learning, (b) phonetic script, (c) spelling clues, (d) words in sentences, and (e) paired
associates (DiFino, 2004; Ganschow et al., 2009).
Pre-referral assessment tool
Along the same lines, the “pre-referral assessment tool” is an instrument to identify
English language learners who could need special evaluations during the process of identifying
learning problems. The pre-referral assessment tool is a good base to decide the conditions
students face in the process of acquiring a second language (Cohan & Honigsfeld, 2012). This
assessment instrument focuses on ten areas: “1.the language background, 2. personal, cultural,
educational background, 3. language acquisition patterns, 4. learning patterns, 5. behavioral
patterns, 6. behavior modifications implemented with the student, 7. dimensions of learning
disability (LD) detection, 8. child´s learning problem from the perspective of several teachers, 9.
key questions on persistent problems, and 10. outcomes” (Cohan & Honigsfeld, 2012, p.14 ).
Authentic assessment

As Clay (2002) says, “standardized tests are poor measures of slow progress” (p. 11).
That is why teachers have to find more effective ways to lead the eyes to specific learning details
that help educators make informed decisions. For instance, teachers need to apply authentic
assessments, which are used for instruction and evaluation of the learning outcomes.
Fulton & King (1995) describe authentic assessment as a word that is used to outline
different ways to examine the development of students’ abilities in the learning process. Students
have to learn solve problems or perform tasks that closely resemble authentic situations. This
definition is complemented by Luongo- Orlando (2003), who says that authentic assessment
involves the application of knowledge and skills in real life situations.
The use of authentic assessment is beneficial for students and helpful for teachers because
it incorporates the social and behavioral skills necessary outside the classroom. This type of
assessment integrates high order thinking skills since teachers put great emphasis on problem
solving, critical thinking, comprehension, reasoning, and metacognition (Fulton & King, 1995;
Herrera, Morales, & Murry, 2013; Luongo-Orlando, 2003).
Authentic assessment also helps English teachers differentiate between learning
disabilities or language acquisition difficulties; therefore it is productive for ESL/EFL teachers
due to the variety of strategies that can support the process. Curriculum-based assessment
or dynamic assessments help teachers collect progress and procedural data while students are
being taught. Curriculum based assessment can also help teachers create and adapt tools that are
modified to the students culture and language needs in order to identify the students’ real
abilities through formative activities (Klinger, et al., 2008).
Sharon DiFino (2004) recommends teachers to use frequent assessing techniques to prove
the students learning, this strategy is more effective and helpful to students. So too is the use of

nontraditional testing, which reinforces cultural background through classroom assessments and
minimizes the student´s levels of affective filter letting learners develop effective knowledge (
DiFino, 2004). On the whole, authentic assessments help ESL/EFL teachers get accurate and
valid results while students develop real world tasks demonstrating meaningful application of
essential knowledge through listening speaking, reading and writing.

Characteristics of Authentic Assessment
Indicators
Figure 1
Ximena Naranjo
Characteristics of Authentic Assessment Diagram
Resembles real
life context.
Appropriate criteria
Multiple indicators of Learning.
Projects, writing, journals, weekly
daily tasks
Rubrics
Multiple tasks
Formative
Assessment
Problem solving
High order thinking
Production of knowledge
Collaboration
Context
Task
factor
s
Student
s
factor
s

Types of authentic assessment
Herrera (2011), says that students’ activities that include “experiments, projects,
observations, interviews, and students narratives” (p. 26) are good examples of authentic
assessments. These multiple indicators of learning can be applied to any content areas, for
instruction as well as for assessment purposes.
Performance- based assessments.
This is a set of strategies for acquisition and application of knowledge where
teachers can see the behavior of the students doing tasks (Fulton & King, 1995) Along the
same lines (Linn & Miller , 2005) who was cited by (Herrera et. al.,2013) considers
performance based assessment as the “actual doing of a task” which is a process of
observing and monitoring students while they are participating in class activities (Herrera et
al., 2013, p.26).
Interview based assessment
Interviews are a good way to understand the learning progress because either
informal or highly structured questions provide a good insight of the learners’ perspectives
in front of the process as well as future learning goals (Herrera et al., 2013).
Self- assessment and peer assessment
Self- assessment and peer assessment are valuable tools to evaluate CDL students
because they develop understanding of the students own progress, and work. These tools
motivate learners improve previous tasks, besides they make students aware of their
improvements as well as of their own abilities or failings.
Portfolios

Portfolios are the collection of assignments which show the production and
completion over a period of time, Portfolios are “ visual representations of students
accomplishments capabilities, strengths, weaknesses and progress over time” Both
authors agree that portfolios have turned out to be the most organized representation of the
students work and development. (Fulton & King, 1995; Herrera et al., 2013)
Play – based assessment.
This is a good strategy for evaluating children and CLD students who are in the
process of learning English through the use of toys as real objects as if children were in a
natural context. Observing children while they are playing can help teachers determine the
cognitive and socio-emotional level of development as well as the understanding of
concepts applied to life. On the other hand, CLD students are benefited by the use of play
based assessment because students can demonstrate their understanding of language
structures at the time of communicating using the four language skills. (Herrera et al.,
2013)

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
Root = sit with the learner
Frequent feedback
Observe process of learning
Appraising students
Active role of students
Different cultural backgrounds,
learning styles academic ability
Measures
Judge students
Clear data
Criterion-referenced
Norm referenced
Students are
passive.
ASSESSMENT
PERFORMANCE PORTFOLIOS INTERVIEW
PLAY-BASED
BASED
BASED
SELF- ASSESSMENT
PEER ASSESSMENT

Figure 2
Ximena Naranjo
Authentic Assessment Mind map
The teacher´s role in authentic assessment
Teachers who are applying authentic assessments in their classrooms need to make
several changes to help students achieve their cognitive, procedural and attitudinal goals.
Instructors have to state learning objectives, plan instruction, and consider documents to
back up the collection of data while the learning is developed. Another important point is to
develop grading strategies to distribute and interpret authentic assessments. (Fulton &
King, 1995)
Teachers are required to incorporate authentic assessment into instruction, even
though they might think there is not enough time; the point is to replace certain activities
like lectures to include meaningful activities where students collaborate and develop skills
while learning. Along the same line, introducing manipulatives, problem solving, and group
work help students investigate to find out solutions to the presented tasks demonstrating
understanding through production, creation and performance.(Fulton & King, 1995).
Teachers training and methodology
Leonore Ganschow (2009) assures that there is a relationship between learning
strategies and the success or failure of the students. Therefore, teachers are responsible for
creating a motivating environment; plenty of resources and effective learning strategies to
hook the students in the development of a second language. (Ganschow et al., 2009).
What is more important children´s education should be based on the constructivist theory
where teachers use active processes to build up new concepts linking students present and

past knowledge to produce meaningful learning. This practice of enhancing stages of
human lives goes from analyzing how teachers affect students, their families and
background, their environment, the material they work with, the curriculum, their
assessment until they reach to a point where students and teachers can apply their new
knowledge. (Herrera, S., & Murry, K., 2011).
Reflection
Foreign or second language acquisition is determined by two important factors
which are instruction and individual differences. As a teacher, I need to consider
intelligence, aptitude, motivation, and the pace or speed of my students in order to provide
a quality education. Additionally, I need to base my teaching on the students’ individual
needs, rather than rigid methodologies, or mandated curricula since I know every student is
different at the time of seeing goals in an effective communication.
I will reconsider the techniques for reading and writing to raise the rate of
enunciation as well as the level of language for instruction through cognates, repetitions,
and paraphrasing, to explain tasks and give instructions. Also the use of pictures, flash
cards, technology, or simply writing on the board can give a better understanding of the
concepts during students´ instruction, as it is suggested by Case and Taylor (Case &Taylor,
2005). Common sense seems to dictate that realia, like (train schedules, menus, foreign
currency, posters announcing concerts, or lectures, recipes from grocery stores) role plays,
songs, DVD, assignment sheets” (DiFino, 2004) help to create an engaging atmosphere
where students pay attention and develop meaningful learning.

Although, it is true that there are tests like the MLAT (Modern Language
Assessment Test), or PLAB that can examine learning patterns. These tools cannot identify
special student´s requirements. Furthermore, it is real that examining the students cognitive
– academic aptitude connecting their progress in other areas of the curriculum help to better
understand the learning problems through looking at the process.
I like the idea of using authentic assessment techniques for processing and
evaluating the language development. I think it is very applicable in my classroom because
the students’ background, their language development, and their motivation vary from
gender, age, time of class and time of the year in my school. Authentic assessment will help
me view the process of the four language skills while students are presenting projects,
working on hands on activities, or practicing speaking to have a better picture of what is
going on in the classroom as a true learning experience.
Furthermore the idea to create a differentiated instruction can help me integrate
what I learnt about constructivist learning theory, learning styles, factors of learners’
readiness, and motivation to improve my teaching practice engaging my students in the
process of developing a second language until they reach a proficiency level.
The literature stated in this review challenge the work of some Ecuadorian
EFL/ESL teachers who don´t have a clear conception of certain overlapping characteristics
between language acquisition and learning disability. Consequently, teachers need to be
aware of the Ecuadorian educational system and its members to provide with opportunities
to connect students with the content through meaningful experiences. Teachers need to use
active enhancing learning strategies to support students through their own understanding,

experience, interactions and reflection with the sole goal of learning a language expressed
in an effective communication.
Indeed, Teachers must know that students become more metacognitive aware of
their learning if they are prompted to solve problems, develop arguments, or analyze the
way they are building their own knowledge. Therefore, ESL/EFL teachers need to develop
metacognitive strategies, such as setting goals, making predictions, and checking for
consistency to find out the gaps between language acquisitions or a learning disability in
both Spanish and English instruction.
Anyone familiar with the Ecuadorian teaching system would agree that teachers
need to work as a team to unify efforts in the process of developing fluent English speakers.
To put it bluntly, the problems to read spell and write in the students´ first language affect
second language as some of the characteristics detailed in this review.
Professionally I think that there is a long path to go. Though, I concede that the
researches tell educators new approaches to teach ELLs, I still insist that every classroom is
different and that every educator has to find the way to reach out the students who are
struggling in the process of learning a language and the ones who have learning
difficulties.

Appendix
Similarities between LD and Language Acquisition
literacy: Some Similarities Between LD and Language Acquisition
Behaviors Associated w/ LD Behaviors when Acquiring an L2
Difficulty following directions Difficulty following directions because the
directions were not well understood; it can be
harder to remember directions in a second
language.
Difficulty with phonological awareness Difficulty auditory distinguishing between
sounds not in one’s first language, or sounds
that are presented in a different order.
Slow to learn sound-symbol
correspondence
Confusion with sound-symbol correspondence
when it is different than in one’s first language.
Difficulty pronouncing sounds not in the first
language.
Difficulty remembering sight words Difficulty remembering sight words when word
meanings are not understood.
Difficulty retelling a story in sequence Difficulty retelling a story in English without
the expressive skills to do so; yet the student
might understand more than s/he can convey
(i.e., receptive skills in English might be
stronger than expressive skills).

Confusion with figurative language Confusion with figurative language, idioms,
pronouns, conjunctions, and words with
multiple meanings.
Slow to process challenging language Slow to process challenging language because it
is not well understood.
May have poor auditory memory May seem to have poor auditory memory if
sounds or words are unfamiliar or not well
understood.
May have difficulty concentrating Learning in a second language is mentally
exhausting; therefore, ELLs may seem to have
difficulty concentrating at times.
May seem easily frustrated Learning in a second language can be
frustrating.
Table: 1
(Klinger, 2008, p.2)

References
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States of America: Corwin Press,Inc.
Herrera, S., Morales, R., & Murry, K. (2013). Assessment accomodations for classroom
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Second Language Acquisition: A Case Study. Insights on Learning Disabilities, 13-22.
Inglés, E. T. (2012). Ecuadorian in-service English teachers standards. Estandares de Calidad de
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Klingner, J., Hoover, J., Baca,L. (2008). Why do English Language Learners strugge with reading?
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instruction for the culturally and linguistically diverse students (2nded.). Boston: Allyn
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Rod, C., Taylor, S. 2005). Language Difference or Learning Disability? ERIC, 127-130.
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DiFino, S., Lombardino, L. (2004). Language Learning Disabilities: The Ultimate Foreign
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