Motivation (2010)
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Motivation (2010)
- 1. 1 Motivation Bioethics & Social Health Block Dr Zahiruddin Othman
- 2. 2 Lecture Outline • General theories of human motivation – Intrinsic – Extrinsic • Specific theories on motivation – Instinct – Drive-reduction theory (Hull) – Reinforcement theory (Skinner ) – Hierarchy of needs (Maslow)
- 3. 3 Theories of Personality & Motivation Personality theories represent elaborate speculations or hypotheses about why people behave as they do
- 4. 4
- 5. 5 Defining Motivation • Internal state or condition that activatesactivates behavior and gives it directiondirection; • Desire or want that energizes and directs goal- oriented behavior; • Influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior • The arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior
- 6. 6 • Intrinsic (primary) motivation – The desire to perform an act because it is satisfying or pleasurable in and of itself – Satisfies internal need or desire • Biology • Cognition • Emotion • Volition • Spiritual • Moral Defining Motivation
- 7. 7 • Extrinsic (secondary) motivation – The desire to perform an act to meet external demands or requirements • Classical conditioning—associated stimuli • Operant conditioning—consequences • Social learning—models and imitation • Social cognition—influence of others on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors Defining Motivation
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- 9. 9
- 10. 10 Instinct Theories of Motivation • The notion that human behavior is motivated by certain innate patterns of action that are activated in response to stimuli • Most psychologists today reject instinct theory – human behavior is too richly diverse – often too unpredictable
- 11. 11 the female three-spined sticklebackthe female three-spined stickleback normally follows the red-bellied malenormally follows the red-bellied male to the nest that he has preparedto the nest that he has prepared HeHe guidesguides her intoher into the nestthe nest and thenand then prods theprods the base of herbase of her tail. She thentail. She then lays eggs inlays eggs in the nest.the nest. After doing so, the maleAfter doing so, the male drives her from the nest,drives her from the nest, enters it himself, andenters it himself, and fertilizes the eggs.fertilizes the eggs. The researcher imitates a mother duck's quacking in front of a group of ducklings just after they had hatched. They learn very rapidly to identify their mother on the basis of visual, olfactory and auditory cues Thus, the ducklings perceived the researcher as their mother and followed her accordingly.
- 12. 12 Drive-reduction Theory • A theory of motivation suggesting that a need creates an unpleasant state of arousal or tension called a drive, which impels the organism to engage in behavior that will satisfy the need and reduce the tension • Popularized by Clark Hull – Believed that all living organisms have certain biological needs that must be met if they are to survive
- 13. 13 Drive-reduction Theory • Drive-reduction theory is derived largely from the biological concept of homeostasis • Homeostasis – The tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal state with regard to oxygen level, body temperature, blood sugar, water balance, and so forth – Everything required for physical existence must be maintained in a state of equilibrium, or balance • When this state is disturbed, a drive is created to restore the balance
- 14. 14
- 15. 15 Psychoanalysis Life instincts or libido These instincts perpetuate (a) the life of the individual, by motivating him or her to seek food and water, and (b) the life of the species, by motivating him or her to have sex
- 16. 16 PSYCHIC DETERMINISMPSYCHIC DETERMINISM Nothing happens by chance or in an accidental, arbitrary way. Each psychological event is determined by events which preceded it, and occurrences in our psychological lives that appear to be random only appear so. “There are no accidents” (Brenner, 1999)
- 17. 17 Reinforcement Theory (Skinner ) ApplyApply WitholdWithold RewardReward positive reinforcementreinforcement (behavior freq raise above baseline) extinction (behavior freq stay at baseline) StressorStressor punishment (bring down behavior freq below baseline) negative reinforcementreinforcement (raise above baseline) BehaviorBehavior ConsequenceConsequence (reward/stressor)time frequency Consequence Behavior A behavior is determine by its consequence
- 18. 18 Carrot and Stick policy Application of reinforcement theory at social level
- 19. 19 Cocaine Amphetamine Cannabinoids Opiates Cocaine Amphetamine Cannabinoids Opiates Ethanol O piates Nicotine Ethanol O piates Nicotine Reward Pathways - Mesolimbic dopaminergic system
- 20. 20 Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive dissonance is a psychological term which describes the uncomfortable tension that may result from having two conflicting thoughts at the same time, or from engaging in behavior that conflicts with one's beliefs
- 22. 22 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Being needs or B-needs Deficiency needs or D-needs
- 23. 23 – Attempted to develop a theory of motivation that would synthesize multiple theories – Proposed two sets of needs • Deficiency needs • Growth needs – Growth needs develop after deficiency needs are met – Lowest unmet need will receive attention – Believed that these motivational processes were central to the human personality Maslow's Hierarchy of Need
- 24. 24 Maslow's Hierarchy of Need AbnormalAbnormalNormalNormal
- 25. 25 Self-Actualization The need for self-actualization is "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." People who have everything can maximize their potential. They can seek knowledge, peace, esthetic experiences, self-fulfillment, and oneness with God, etc. “Yesterday is history. Tomorrow is a mystery. Today is a gift, that’s why it's called the present.” - Master Oogway
- 26. 26 Theory of Needs (David McClelland) McClelland's concept is also referred to as the Learned Needs Theory, Acquired Needs Theory, and Three Needs Theory
Notes de l'éditeur
- Personality theories represent elaborate speculations or hypotheses about why people behave as they do
- Freud saw all human behavior as motivated by the drives or instincts, which in turn are the neurological representations of physical needs. At first, he referred to them as the life instincts. These instincts perpetuate (a) the life of the individual, by motivating him or her to seek food and water, and (b) the life of the species, by motivating him or her to have sex. The motivational energy of these life instincts, the "oomph" that powers our psyches, he called libido, from the Latin word for "I desire.“ http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/freud.html
- http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/skinner.html
- THE PLEASURE CENTRES AFFECTED BY DRUGS The nucleus accumbens definitely plays a central role in the reward circuit. Its operation is based chiefly on two essential neurotransmitters: dopamine, which promotes desire, and serotonin, whose effects include satiety and inhibition. Many animal studies have shown that all drugs increase the production of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, while reducing that of serotonin. But the nucleus accumbens does not work in isolation. It maintains close relations with other centres involved in the mechanisms of pleasure, and in particular, with the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Located in the midbrain, at the top of the brainstem, the VTA is one of the most primitive parts of the brain. It is the neurons of the VTA that synthesize dopamine, which their axons then send to the nucleus accumbens. The VTA is also influenced by endorphins whose receptors are targeted by opiate drugs such as heroin and morphine.Another structure involved in pleasure mechanisms is the prefrontal cortex, whose role in planning and motivating action is well established. The prefrontal cortex is a significant relay in the reward circuit and also is modulated by dopamine. The locus coeruleus, an alarm centre of the brain and packed with norepinephrine, is another brain structure that plays an important role in drug addiction. When stimulated by a lack of the drug in question, the locus coeruleus drives the addict to do anything necessary to obtain a fix. Two structures in the limbic system also play an active part in the pleasure circuit and, consequently, in drug dependency. The first is the amygdala, which imparts agreeable or disagreeable affective colorations to perceptions.The second is the hippocampus, the foundation of memory, which preserves the agreeable memories associated with taking the drug and, by association, all of the details of the environment in which it is taken. Sometime in the future, these details may reawaken the desire to take the drug and perhaps contribute to recidivism in the patient.
- Cognitive dissonance is a psychological term which describes the uncomfortable tension that may result from having two conflicting thoughts at the same time, or from engaging in behavior that conflicts with one's beliefs The theory of cognitive dissonance states that contradicting cognitions serve as a driving force that compels the mind to acquire or invent new thoughts or beliefs, or to modify existing beliefs, so as to reduce the amount of dissonance (conflict) between cognitions.
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a theory in psychology that Abraham Maslow proposed in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation, which he subsequently extended to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theory contended that as humans meet 'basic needs', they seek to satisfy successively 'higher needs' that occupy a set hierarchy Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels: the four lower levels are grouped together as deficiency needs associated with physiological needs, while the top level is termed growth needs associated with psychological needs. While deficiency needs must be met, growth needs are the need for personal growth. The basic concept is that the higher needs in this hierarchy only come into focus once all the needs that are lower down in the pyramid are mainly or entirely satisfied. Once an individual has moved past a level, those needs will no longer be prioritized. However, if a lower set of needs is continually unmet for an extended period of time, the individual will temporarily re-prioritize those needs - dropping down to that level until those lower needs are reasonably satisfied again. Innate growth forces constantly create upward movement in the hierarchy unless basic needs remain unmet indefinitely.
- http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/maslow.html