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Zach Rollins
HIST 1110
The Role of Astronomy and its Impact on Mayan Civilization
No other Mesoamerican peoples or ancient civilization in general had as much
knowledge of the observable universe as the Maya, nor were the stars, planets, constellations,
and galaxy as a whole as important to any other civilization as they were to the Maya.
Astronomy was one of the most pervasive components in Mayan civilization and had
considerable historical implications for the civilization. The Maya used remarkable tools and
methods to accurately study and record information regarding galactic objects, and the
observable universe had some sort of influence, whether minor or significant, on nearly every
factor in Mayan society, including architecture, culture, religion, and politics.
The methods and tools used by the Mayans to observe the stars and the planets are not
entirely clear. Scholars have found no evidence of telescopes or other related instruments, and
because of this, the most common question raised when discussing Mayan astronomy is: what
tools did they use to make their calculations so accurate? Archaeological evidence suggests that
among the tools they used were large mirrors made from obsidian (Kelley and Milone 353).
Exactly why and how the mirrors were used remains somewhat of a mystery, but findings such
as sculptures and carvings indicate that the mirrors were placed at the head of large boards and
were angled towards the sky. A person would then lie stomach-down on the board and look into
the mirror to observe the sky. This way, making observations and recording information was
easier; pointing directly on the mirror’s surface to indicate a star, planet, or other object to
another person was much simpler than aimlessly pointing towards the object in the vast,
intangible sky. In addition, the obsidian mirrors were carved in such ways that suggest the

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Mayans’ intentions were to distort the reflections and made objects appear larger so they would
be much easier to examine (354). Using these mirrors was a more modest tactic in examining the
galaxy, however, and the Mayans dedicated enormous time and effort to survey space in a more
methodical and exact way.
Indicative of the Maya’s incredible talents in astronomy was the fascinating structure
now known as El Caracol, a key spot for Mayan astronomers located at the site of Chichen Itza.
It was in the mid-1970s when a team of astronomers traveled to Chichen Itza to assess the
significance of El Caracol. Prior to this, archaeologists reasoned that El Caracol was an
observatory based on its structural characteristics. The research of those astronomers concluded
that El Caracol was not only a magnificent observatory, but that its orientation correlated with
certain planetary alignments during ancient Mayan civilization (Stockton). Giant openings in the
roof of the observatory were slanted at particular angles that coordinated with certain interstellar
phenomena, and using only their naked eyes, those in the observatory were able to measure the
alignments of stars and planets with bizarre accuracy (Ayala). Judging by their enormous efforts
to observe the heavens, it thus becomes clear that the Mayans held space in high esteem. But
what exactly did their findings influence in regard to their society?
First, astronomical influences can be observed in Mayan architecture. Some evidence
suggests that the layouts of cities and the location of certain buildings correlate with significant
galactic objects such as constellations and planets (Ayala). Venus was of particular importance to
Mayan astronomy, so it comes as no surprise that if the layout of cities was connected with any
object in the sky, it would certainly be Venus. Key buildings were built (existing buildings were
even adjusted) so they would face the standstill location of Venus and align perfectly with the
planet’s rising on the horizon, and many key structures in Tenochtitlan correlate with

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astronomically significant directions (Penprase 212). Furthermore, in the Mayan city of Uxmal,
the central plaza of the Palace of the Governor precisely matches the azimuth direction of the
Venus standstill, and the façade of the building itself features over 350 carvings of symbols
related to Venus (213).
Concerning the astronomical significance of more specific structures, El Castillo, located
at Chichen Itza, provides us with a glimpse of how the Maya took advantage of their stellar
knowledge and applied it to construction. On the Vernal and Autumnal Equinoxes, the sun
illuminates a sequence of triangles on the Northwest corner of El Castillo and casts the light on
the opposite wall. The resulting light cast on the wall forms the clear shape of a serpent. Many
deduce that the design is too exact to be just a coincidence and must be an intentional design by
the builders, but current archaeologists dispute this fact. The theory that the design is intentional
is reasonable, though, because El Castillo served as a temple for Kukulkan, a deity that took the
form of a feathered serpent, and the structure already features prominent sculptures of serpents.
Assuming that the serpent effect was intentional, it provides additional evidence of the Maya’s
extensive knowledge of the Sun, as well as the significance of the Vernal and Autumnal
Equinoxes (Jenkins).
Astronomy had cultural implications for the Maya, as well. Not only did astronomy
pervade the daily lives of most Mayans, but it played a considerable role in their art and written
works, as well as the Mayan calendar. The sky and the stars appear to be of special interest in
Mayan art, and a majority of Mayan paintings place the subject matter of the work in the midst
of stars or space (Milbrath 253). Stars were often shown as being animal-like, as well. Birds and
the spots of jaguars are two examples of the earthly manifestations of stars as painted by the
Maya. Spectacular events such as lunar and solar eclipses were also carved into pottery and other

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sculptures and figurines (Kelley and Milone 380). Most Mayan religious art also portrays the
deities as living in the heavens, interacting with the stars and planets, and in some cases, they are
even shown as being planets themselves. In addition to their works of art, Mayan writings were
also impacted by astronomy. Some of the most historically important writings from the Maya are
their codices—codices which essentially center on astronomical happenings. Only four Mayan
codices remain in existence today: the Dresden, Paris, Madrid, and Grolier. The Dresden Codex,
perhaps the most renowned of the four codices, includes almanacs, astronomical and astrological
information, and prophecies for future years. Most fascinating, though, is the fact that the
Dresden Codex contains extensive information on the daily lives of ordinary Mayans and the
connection they had with the cosmos. Occupations, marriages, child births, commerce, and
worship schedules are all predominantly mentioned in the Dresden Codex (Barnhart 1).
Astronomy was crucial to the configuration of the Maya calendar, too. The Maya tracked
a 365-day solar year, as well as a 260-day ritual calendar (Jenkins). 260 appears to be an
important number for the Maya, and the reasons why their ritualistic calendar features 260 days
are numerous. Venus is visible in the sky for roughly 260 days, and given Venus’s importance to
the Maya, this could very well be the primary reason for the 260-day length (Peden). Some
scholars further suggest that the 260-day period also corresponds to the number of days of
human gestation, which is, on average, between 255-266 days. Additionally, 260 days was the
approximate length of the critical agricultural season in Mesoamerica (Milbrath 1-2). Another
cultural implication of Mayan astronomy is thus presented: the significant connection between
the universe and both human life and agriculture.
Perhaps the area of Mayan civilization most directly impacted by astronomy is religion.
As was the case in many other ancient civilizations, the Maya were polytheistic because of the

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natural observations they made. A primary reason for the Maya’s polytheistic religion is their
simple examining of space. Obviously unable to comprehend the vastness of the world, let alone
the universe, Mayans looked to the sky and observed the stars. Undoubtedly amazed by these
unreachable, untouchable entities watching over them, the only logical connection the Maya
made was to deem the stars, sun, and moon as gods and goddesses. Most of the Mayan deities
were natural gods, and the Mayans associated them with nature as well as the stars and planets
(Milbrath 124).
Finally, Mayan astronomy and knowledge of stellar and planetary occurrences had a
noticeable impact on politics. When new Mayan rulers came to power, they timed their accession
to the throne to occur with certain astronomical events and held momentous ceremonies to mark
the occasion (Jenkins). Moreover, astronomy had a substantial impact on war and how battles
were fought. Many of the Mayan deities associated with war and, in some cases, protection,
generally took the form of a jaguar. The jaguar is connected with the moon, and the moon was
often seen as a physical manifestation of a particular jaguar war god (Milbrath 124). Images of
the moon were thus carved onto war shields to ensure victory in battles, and military officials
even dressed in elaborate outfits and headdresses that featured lunar symbols and shapes that
corresponded to the Milky Way, which the Maya called the “World Tree” (125). Maya rulers
also waged war in order to obtain captives when certain planetary alignments occurred (Jenkins).
Astronomy in the Mayan civilization was clearly an incredibly sophisticated science that
produced inexplicably accurate and precise calculations and findings. It was much more than just
the study and science of the universe, though. Astronomy encompassed the daily lives of most
Mayans, and almost every element of their civilization was shaped by their knowledge of the

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stars and planets. Architecture, culture, religion, and politics were directly influenced in some
way or another, and thus, so was the historical importance of these Mesoamerican people.

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Works Cited
Ayala, Francisco J. “Science in Latin America.” Science 267.5199 (1995): 826. Academic
OneFile. Web. 5 Dec. 2011.
Barnhart, Edwin L. The First Twenty-Three Pages of the Dresden Codex: The Divination Pages.
MA thesis. University of Texas at Austin, 2005. Web.
Jenkins, Dawn. The Maya Astronomy Page. Michielb.nl, 22 Jul. 2005. Web. 2 Dec. 2011.
Kelley, David, and Eugene F. Milone. Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of
Archaeoastronomy. New York: Springer Science and Business Media, 2005. EBSCOhost.
E-book.
Milbrath, Susan. Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars. Austin:
University of Texas Press, 1999. EBSCOhost. E-book.
Peden, Robert D. “The Mayan Calendar—Why 260 Days?” SpiderOrchid.com Web Book Shop.
9 Jun. 2004. Web. 4 Dec. 2011.
Penprase, Bryan E. The Power of Stars: How Celestial Observations Have Shaped Civilization.
New York: Springer-Verlag, LLC., 2010. E-book.
Stockton, William. “Ancient Astronomy Points to New Views of Mayan Life.” New York Times.
25 Mar. 1986. Web. 5 Dec. 2011.