The document provides an introduction to phonetics and phonology. It discusses key concepts such as phonemes, allophones, places and manners of articulation for consonants and vowels in English. It explains the classification of different types of consonant sounds such as plosives, fricatives, nasals, and approximants. It also discusses phonological concepts like fortis and lenis sounds, as well as broad and narrow transcription. The main goal is to define foundational terms and describe the production of English speech sounds.

1. Introduction: Phonetics & Phonology At the end of the course, the students should be able to produce, correctly pronounce and discriminate English vowels and consonants. The course should help the students acquire pronunciation without too many traces of [mother tongue] articulation and intonation.• … so that participants can not only improve their own pronunciation, but also make use of the theoretical information to guide their teaching practice. The main emphasis is on acquiring the practical ability to make and hear differences between sounds and to identify common pronunciation problems.

2. Introduction: Phonetics & Phonology Mastery of English pronunciation is a key to successful communication in all contexts of English use. Vitanova and Miller (2001) reported an ESL research subjects, conceiving that ‘improving pronunciation is very helpful to my career, because the ability of verbal communication is very important to a nurse’. By contrast, it is widely argued that failure to produce correct English pronunciation ‘… can undermine learners’ self-confidence, restrict social interactions, and negatively influence estimations of speaker’s credibility and abilities’ (Florez 1989). Indeed, it is likely that an EFL learner may take refuge into silence instead of mispronouncing a word in such as a way that mayresultin a negative estimation of their ‘credibility and abilities’.

3. Introduction: Phonetics & Phonology ** Defining Phonology ** Phonology is a branch of linguistics that studies the changes in sounds when they occur in different linguistic environments and the patterns of sounds in the language. Phonology is a branch of linguistics that studies the changes in sounds when they occur in different linguistic environments and the patterns of sounds in the language.

4. Introduction: Phonetics & Phonology • Phonemes are contrastive units of sound that are used to change meaning. • E.g. Pat fat: if we change the sound we change the meaning.

5. Introduction: Phonetics & Phonology • Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with describing, classifying, and transcribing speech sounds: • - Description of sounds: how sounds are articulated • - Classification of sounds: naming sounds • - Transcription of sounds: a method of writing speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way

6. Introduction: Phonetics & Phonology Allophones Phonetic variants of phonemes Phonemes are realized by allophones. Many allophones for a particular phoneme Phonemes are abstract but allophones are concrete entities of speech. Allophones will occur in a particular phonetic context. In English, if we change allophones we get the same word but when a phoneme is changed we get a different word.

7. Introduction: Phonetics & Phonology There are no one to one correspondence between letters and sounds in English. - Different letters may represent a single sound, e.g. too/two /u:/ -A single letter may represent different sounds, e.g. dad /æ/.. Father /a:/ - A combination of letters may represent a single sound, e.g. phone /f/ - A specific combination of letters may represent different sounds, e.g. gh spaghetti /g/ enough /f/ Some letters have no sounds at all in content words, that is, silent..e.g. know Some sounds are not represented in the spelling..e.g. Cute /kju:t/

8. Introduction: Phonetics & Phonology Homographs are words that are spelt the same but pronounced differently..e.g. addict (n) and addict (v) Homophones are words that are spelt differently but pronounced the same..e.g. sea /si:/ and see /si:/

9. Introduction: Phonetics & Phonology These include immersion programs, (natural) exposure to the language, (formal and informal) listening programs, and phonetic courses. Of course, all or many of these ways can be incorporated into the same educational program.

10. Introduction: Phonetics & Phonology Phonetic course should focus more on pronunciation practice and less on phonetic information in order to help the students overcome their pronunciation difficulties.

11. Introduction: Phonetics & Phonology Just compare heart, beard, and heard, Dies and diet, lord and word, Sword, and sward, retain and Britain. Now I surely will not plague you With such words as plague and ague. But be careful how you speak: Say break and steak, but bleak and streak; Cloven, oven, how and low, Script, receipt, show, poem and toe.

12. Place of articulation

13. The International Phonetic Alphabet recognises the following places of articulation (among others): Bilabial The point of maximum constriction is made by the coming together of the two lips. Labiodental The lower lip articulates with the upper teeth. Dental The tip of the tongue articulates with the back or bottom of the top teeth. Alveolar The tip or the blade of the tongue articulates with the forward part of the alveolar ridge. A sound made with the tip of the tongue here is an apico-alveolar sound; one made with the blade, a lamino-alveolar. Postalveolar The tip or the blade of the tongue articulates with the back area of the alveolar ridge. Palatal The front of the tongue articulates with the domed part of the hard palate. Velar The back of the tongue articulates with the soft palate. Uvular The back of the tongue articulates with the very back of the soft palate, including the uvula. Pharyngeal The pharynx is constricted by the faucal pillars moving together (lateral compression) and, possibly, by the larynx being raised. "It is largely a sphincteric semi-closure of the oro-pharynx, and it can be learned by tickling the back of the throat, provoking retching" (Catford 1978:163). Glottal The vocal folds are brought together; in some cases, the function of the vocal folds can be part of articulation as well as phonation, as in the case of [] and [h] in many languages.

14. 1.Exo-labial (outer part of lip) 2.Endo-labial (inner part of lip) 3.Dental (teeth) 4.Alveolar (front part of alveolar ridge) 5.Post-alveolar (rear part of alveolar ridge slightly behind it) 6.Pre-palatal (front part of hard palate that arches upward) 7.Palatal (hard palate) 8.Velar (soft palate) 9.Uvular (a.k.a. Post-velar; uvula) 10.Pharyngeal (pharyngeal wall) 11.Glottal (a.k.a. Laryngeal; vocal folds) 12.Epiglottal (epiglottis) 13.Radical (tongue root) 14.Postero-dorsal (back of tongue body) 15.Antero-dorsal (front of tongue body) 16.Laminal (tongue blade) 17.Apical (apex or tongue tip) 18.Sub-laminal (a.k.a. Sub-apical; underside of tongue). English: Places of articulation (active and passive)

15. The soft palate or velum We have two positions for the soft palate: 1) Soft palate is raised =velic closure - Nasal cavity is closed off - Air escapes through the mouth All sounds in English are oral sounds except the nasals 2) Soft palate is lowered - it allows air to escape through the nasal cavity = a nasal sound

16. Glottis The space between vocal cords Three positions for the glottis: 1) Glottis open: a voiceless sound. Folds are wide apart allowing the air from the lungs to escape freely 2) Glottis narrowed= a voiced sound. Folds near each other. As the air passes through the glottis it causes the vocal cords to vibrate 3) Glottis closed= a glottal stop. The glottal stop (?) is produced when the air is compressed momentarily behind a close glottis and then the air is suddenly released as the vocal folds come apart, e.g. battle /ba?l/

17. Classification of Consonants 1) Voicing 2) Place of articulation 3) Manner of articulation

18. Place of Articulation •Articulators: Organs within the oral cavity that are responsible for speech •Two types of articulators: Active Articulators (like the tongue) Passive Articulators (like the hard palate)

19. Place of articulation for English sounds 1) Bilabial: made with upper and lower lip. 2) Labiodentals: Lower lip and upper front teeth. 3) Dental: tongue tip and upper front teeth. 4) Alveolar: tongue tip or blade and alveolar ridge. 5) Post Alveolar: tongue blade and back of alveolar ridge. 6) Palatal: front of the tongue and hard palate. 7) Velar: back of the tongue and soft palate. 8) Glottal: in the glottis.

20. Manner of Articulation (How is the sound produced?) There are 3 major ways: 1) Blockage of oral cavity (Plosives or stops and nasals) 2) Narrowing of oral cavity (Fricatives and Affricates) 3) No narrowing or blockage (open approximation) (Approximants (glides) and lateral approximants) All sounds in English except the nasals are oral sounds, i.e. produced with the soft palate raised so that the air is free to escape through the mouth.

21. Plosives Plosives are produced with complete closure of the articulators in the oral cavity so that the air stream is blocked or stopped and the air stream is compressed then released. As the articulators come apart the airstream is released with an explosive force. The soft palate is raised so that the air is free to escape through the mouth

23. /p/ Voiceless Bilabial Plosive

24. /b/ Voiced Bilabial Plosive

25. /t/ Voiceless Alveolar Plosive

26. /d/ Voiced Alveolar Plosive

27. /k/ Voiceless Velar Plosive

29. It causes a delay in voice onset time (VOT), e.g. Pie  [pʰaI]

30. Bye  [baI]--< X

32. /m/ Voiced Bilabial Nasal

33. /n/ Voiced Alveolar Nasal

35. /f/ Voiceless labiodental fricative

36. /v/ Voiced labiodental Fricative

37. /θ/ Voiceless dental fricative

38. /ð/ voiced dental fricative

39. /s/ voiceless alveolar fricative

40. /z/ voiced alveolar fricative

41. /ʃ/ voiceless post-alveo fricative

42. /ʒ/ voiced post-alveo fricative

44. Consonants Sound keyword /θ/ thin /ð/ this /s/ sea /z/ zoo /ʃ/ shoe /ʒ/ beige /h/ hot Sound keyword /tʃ/ cheap /dʒ/ jam /m/ more /n/ no /ŋ/ sing /l/ light /r/ right /w/ wet /j/ yes

45. Vowels /i:/ seat /I/ sit /e/ set /æ/ sat /ə/ about /3:/ bird /ʌ/ but /ʊ/ foot /u:/ too /ɔ:/ thought /ɔ/ hot /a:/ father

46. Diphthongs /eI/ face /aI/ price /ɔI/ boy-choice /aʊ/ how, mouth / əʊ/ no

47. Centralizing Diphthongs /Iə/ near /eə/ square /ʊə/ poor

48. Fricatives Fricatives can be classified as sibilants and non-sibilants. Sibilants are sounds produced with hissing and buzzing noise = /s, z, ʃ, ʒ/ Non-sibilants are /f,v, h, θ,ð/

50. Classification of Affricates

51. Sound Voicing Place Manner

52. /tʃ/ Voiceless Post-alveo Affricate

53. /dʒ/ Voiced Post-alveo Affricate

55. Classification of lateral approximant

56. Sound voicing Place Manner

58. Classification of approximants

59. Sound voicing Place Manner

60. /w/ voiced bilabial Approximant

61. /j/ voiced palatal Appro

63. One way to be produced involves turning the tip of the tongue upward (without touching the palate) while the sides of the tongue rest against the sides of the back upper teeth.

65. Plosives, fricatives, affricates

66. Sonorants are sounds that allow the air stream to pass freely=

67. Nasals, approximants, lateral approximants, vowels

68. Voiceless= Fortis

76. Long simple vowels =/ i: , u: , a: , Ɔ: , ɜ: /

80. The retroflex [ɝ] is commonly found in stressed syllables in items like ‘bird’ and ‘third’.

82. A diphthong is a combination of two vowels in which one serves as the center of the syllable peak (the nucleus) and the other (the glide) moves into or away from it.

83. We have offgliding diphthongs and ongliding diphthongs.

84. In offgliding diphthongs, the glide occurs after the nucleus.

87. Ex: Hour  / haʊə / & dryer / draIə/** Allophonic Variation ** Allophones: are in complementary distribution. Each allophone occurs in a unique linguistics environment.

89. It causes a delay in Voice Onset Time (VOT).

92. Aspiration andAllophones of / p / 4) Unreleased / p / = [ p ̚ ] Articulators don’t move a part. Occurs at the end of the word. Ex. Tap  [ thæp̚ ] ; & Stop  [ stɔp̚ ] . (All stops at the end of the word are Unreleased). ( The aspiration is just for voiceless stops / p , t , k / )

96. Repeat  [riIphi:t ] ( here because / p / occurs in stressed syllable it’s aspirated)

97. Allophones are NOTcontrastive (don’t change meaning) .

98. Ex. Tin [ thIn ] Pin [ phIn ] << “t” and “p” are two different phonemes because if we change one phoneme we get another meaning.

100. ~ This is because of:

101. Social Factors.

102. Different dialects.

103. Linguistics Factors.

105. Dark / l / Dark / l / = occurs after vowels. On the final position or beforeconsonants and velarized Between dark & clear / l / there is a little difference in pronunciation, because we produce the dark / l / with less air.Isproduce with the back of the tongue raised towards the soft palate = [ ɫ ] Ex. filled [ fIɫd ] Fill [fIɫ] With dark /l/, the tip and back of the tongue are relatively high while the center is lowered.

107. Ex. play [pl̥̥̥eI] clay [kl̥̥̥eI] Devoiced means a sound that is normally voiced, but in certain environments is produced with no vibration of vocal folds.

109. = / m, n, l, r /

112. /m, n / is syllabic if preceded by the alveolar stops / t , d / .

113. Ex.Written [ IrItən ] Rhythm [rIðəm]

114. [ IrItņ ] [rIðm̩]

115. Garden kingdom

116. [ Iga:rdən ] [kIηdəm] [ Iga:rdņ ] [kIηdm̩]

120. / s / is lengthened at the end of the words when the consonant cluster / -ts / is deleted .

121. Ex. tests / tests /  [te:s ] lasts  [la:s:]

123. But short before voiceless consonants. Ex. Send / send / voiced (Longer) Sent / sent / voiceless (Shorter) Lambs / læmz / voiced (Longer) Lamp / læmp / voiceless (Shorter)

125. (like Hindi and some American dialects)/ r , t , d , n / Ex.finger [ fIηgə (ŗ) ] Singer[s Iηə (ŗ)]

127. Glottal replacement = the sound /t/ is replaced by a glottal stop [ʔ] before a consonant.

128. Ex.Button [I b^ t ən] [I b^tņ](syllabic)[ b^ʔn](glottal)

129. Britain [brItən] [ brI tņ] (syllabic)[brIʔ n](glottal)

131. Velar Plosives Fronted= velar plosives become more fronted before front vowel. Ex. Key  [ ki:] < “means to the front”

133. Ex: school  [sku:ł]>“means to the back”

137. A vowel is longer when preceded by a voiced consonant (‘bud’)[bΛ.d]

140. [ ~ ]

141. Ex. Ban [bæ~n ] but not Bat / bæt /

142. Rhotacizedvowel A Vowel has /r/ quality before /r/ consonant. [ ɝ] Ex. Sir[ s3:r]  [sɝ]

143. Vowel Rounding Rounding usually accompanies back vowels and front vowels are usually are unrounded. There are several different conventions for indicating the rounding of front vowels and the unrounding of back vowels. A widely used convention employs an umlaut to shift the front vowels to the back and vice versa. Thus [Ü] is a rounded high front tense vowel and [ï] is an unrounded high back tense vowel.