Global virtual team members' perceptions

GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAM MEMBERS’ PERCEPTIONS
OF LEADER PRACTICES
A Dissertation
Submitted to the
Faculty of Argosy University Sarasota
College of Business
In Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Education
By
LaBrita Jeanene Cash-Baskett
June 2011

UMI Number: 3467502
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ii
OF LEADER PRACTICES
Copyright © 2011
All rights reserved by the copyright owner.

iii
OF LEADER PRACTICES
A Dissertation
Submitted to the
College of Business
Doctor of Education
By
Argosy University/Sarasota
June 2011
Dissertation Committee Approval:
__________________________________ ________________________________
Gerald Strand, Ph.D. Chair Date
__________________________________
Celia Edmundson, Ed.D. Member
__________________________________ _________________________________
Evelyn Lim, Ed.D. Member Kathleen Cornett, Ph.D.
Campus College Chair

iv
OF LEADER PRACTICES
Abstract of Dissertation
Submitted to the
College of Business
Doctor of Education
By
Argosy University/Sarasota
June 2011
Gerald Strand, Ph.D.
Celia Edmundson, Ed.D.
Evelyn Lim, Ed.D.
Department: College of Business

v
ABSTRACT
Effective leadership and effective communication may be important predictors of
effectiveness on global virtual teams. The purpose of this research were to: (a) identify
the extent to which leadership communication skills and practices are perceived to be
important factors to virtual team effectiveness; and (b) identify effective communication
practices within global virtual teams. Participants in this study were from global virtual
teams and members of the Association of Proposal Management Professionals (APMP)
(n=73). A grounded theory approach was employed using a mixed method design to
collect interview and online survey data. Qualitative data were analyzed using coding and
cross case analysis. Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS software. Descriptive
statistics and a one-way ANOVA were selected to analyze differences between
demographic groups.
The findings of this study validate existing research in that effective
communication and leadership are important factors for ensuring virtual team
effectiveness. A one-way ANOVA yielded significant differences between generational
groups and gender groups: (a) younger participants perceived the maturity attribute to be
less important than older participants; and (b) women participants perceived the use of
humor to be less important communication skill than reported by men participants.
Virtual team participants reported written, oral, nonverbal, social and listening skills as
the top five communication skills, ranking them from most to least important.
This study builds on existing leadership frameworks, input-processes-output and
capabilities models. Conclusions of the study suggest that leading and managing effective

vi
global virtual teams requires communication competence based on task and procedural
behaviors, interpersonal, meeting facilitation and collaboration skills. The study’s
findings link strongly to the literature, yet they identify areas in which additional research
is needed. Four theoretical propositions lay the groundwork for future research.

vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF TABLES........................................................................................................xi
TABLE OF FIGURES....................................................................................................xiii
TABLE OF APPENDICES............................................................................................xiv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................xv
DEDICATION................................................................................................................xvii
CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM AND ITS COMPONENTS..................................1
Introduction..........................................................................................................................1
Problem Background............................................................................................................2
Purpose of the Study............................................................................................................6
Research Questions..............................................................................................................7
Definition of Terms..............................................................................................................7
Limitations/Delimitations ..................................................................................................11
Significance of the Study...................................................................................................14
Summary............................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...............................................20
Defining Virtual Teams .....................................................................................................20
Characteristics of Effective Leadership.............................................................................21
Historical Perspectives of Virtual Teams...........................................................................24
Theoretical Models of Effective Teams...................................................................24
Leading Virtual Teams.............................................................................................31
Technology...............................................................................................................38
Collaboration............................................................................................................39
Cultural Differences .................................................................................................40
Success Factors in Global Virtual Teams..........................................................................41
Team Communication Factors .................................................................................43
Trust..........................................................................................................................45
Teamwork….............................................................................................................46
Interpersonal Relationships......................................................................................47
Best Practices............................................................................................................48
Challenges Faced by Virtual Teams ..................................................................................53
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY......................................................................58
Introduction........................................................................................................................58
Research Design.................................................................................................................58
Qualitative Grounded Theory...................................................................................58

viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT.)
Page
Quantitative Grounded Theory.................................................................................60
The Grounded Theory Approach..............................................................................61
Sample Pool and Sampling Procedures .............................................................................63
Selection of Participants...........................................................................................65
Sampling Plan...........................................................................................................66
Informed Consent Procedures ..................................................................................67
Confidentiality Procedures.......................................................................................67
Data Collection Procedures................................................................................................67
Interviews.................................................................................................................68
Interview Procedures......................................................................................69
Interview Questions........................................................................................69
Summary Statements......................................................................................70
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................70
Interview Guide........................................................................................................70
Open-ended Questions..............................................................................................72
Responses to Scaled Items........................................................................................73
Instrumentation and Research Questions .................................................................74
Validity and Reliability ............................................................................................76
Methodological Assumptions and Limitations.........................................................78
Data Analysis Procedures ..................................................................................................80
Qualitative Data Analysis.........................................................................................80
Generation of Themes ..............................................................................................81
Verification of Emergent Patterns............................................................................81
Confirmation of Emergent Themes and Patterns .....................................................82
Quantitative Data Analysis.......................................................................................82
Summary............................................................................................................................83
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS......................................................................................84
Introduction........................................................................................................................84
Research Results................................................................................................................84
Research Question 1..................................................................................................85
Methodology......................................................................................................................87
Participant Selection .................................................................................................88
Participant Demographics ........................................................................................89
Qualitative Interview Participants............................................................................89
Characteristics of Effective Global Virtual Teams............................................................89
Context......................................................................................................................90
Composition..............................................................................................................93
Competencies............................................................................................................93
Change......................................................................................................................94
Qualitative Interview Findings ..........................................................................................97

ix
Page
Research Question 1...............................................................................................101
Environment.................................................................................................102
Leadership Practices.....................................................................................103
Role Clarity and Establishment of Leadership.............................................103
Synergy.........................................................................................................105
Leveraging Technology................................................................................107
Meeting Facilitation......................................................................................108
Adapting Communication Style...................................................................109
Cross Cultural Communication and Team Diversity ...................................110
Commitment.................................................................................................111
Empowerment...............................................................................................112
Trust..............................................................................................................113
Characteristics of Clear Communication......................................................122
Research Question 10.............................................................................................161
Emergent Themes ............................................................................................................167
Coding Patterns ......................................................................................................167
Phase II Quantitative Survey Data...................................................................................168
Survey Participant Demographics..........................................................................168
Quantitative Survey Findings.................................................................................169
Closed-ended Questions...............................................................................171
Rated Scale Questions..................................................................................173
Summary..........................................................................................................................178
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS...............................................................................................179
Introduction......................................................................................................................179
Summary..........................................................................................................................179
Success Factors.......................................................................................................179
Challenges Virtual Teams Face..............................................................................181
Problem Statement..................................................................................................181
Methodology...........................................................................................................182
Discussion of the Findings...............................................................................................184
Summary of Emergent Themes..............................................................................184
Summary of Characteristics of Effective Global Virtual Teams............................184
Summary of Leadership Qualities..........................................................................185

x
Page
Summary of Characteristics of Effective Leadership Communications ................186
Summary of Communication Roles .......................................................................187
Summary of Critical Competencies for Global Virtual Team Leaders..................187
Summary of Essential Leadership Skills................................................................188
Summary of Communication Behaviors................................................................189
Task Behaviors.............................................................................................189
Procedural Behaviors....................................................................................189
Interpersonal Behaviors................................................................................190
Summary of Communication Tactics.....................................................................190
Summary of Technology........................................................................................191
Conclusions......................................................................................................................191
Theoretical Propositions.........................................................................................192
Proposition 1.................................................................................................192
Proposition 2.................................................................................................192
Proposition 3.................................................................................................194
Proposition 4.................................................................................................194
Implications for Future Research.....................................................................................195
Leadership ..............................................................................................................195
Behavioral Perspectives................................................................................195
Capabilities Model........................................................................................196
Productivity ............................................................................................................198
Technology...................................................................................................198
Virtual Team Management...........................................................................199
Motivation and Communication.............................................................................199
Individual Level............................................................................................200
Team Level...................................................................................................201
Organizational Level....................................................................................202
Engagement............................................................................................................205
Limitations of the Study...................................................................................................207
Strengths of the Study......................................................................................................208
Mixed Method Design............................................................................................209
Instrumentation.......................................................................................................209
Purposeful Sampling ..............................................................................................211
Data Analysis..........................................................................................................211
Inter-Virtual Communication Competencies...................................................................215
Inter-Virtual Skills Checklist..................................................................................216
Recommendations............................................................................................................212
REFERENCES...............................................................................................................218

xi
TABLE OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Participant Demographics..............................................................................................95
2. Participant Use of Communication Technology............................................................97
3. Question 1 Individual Responses...................................................................................98
4. Question 1 Responses with Joint Agreement...............................................................101
5. Question 1 High Frequency Responses .......................................................................107
6. Question 2 Individual Responses.................................................................................114
7. Question 2 Responses with Joint Agreement...............................................................117
8. Question 2 High Frequency Responses .......................................................................122
9. Question 3 Individual Responses.................................................................................125
10. Question 3 Responses with Joint Agreement.............................................................126
11. Question 3 High Frequency Responses .....................................................................127
12. Question 4 Individual Responses...............................................................................128

xii
TABLE OF TABLES (CONT.)
Table Page
30. Question 10 Individual Responses.............................................................................161
31. Question 10 Responses with Joint Agreement...........................................................164
32. Question 10 High Frequency Responses ...................................................................164
33. Frequency Codes in Interview Questions ..................................................................168
34. Item 7 Responses .......................................................................................................171
35. Item 12 Rated Scale Responses .................................................................................173
36. Item 13 Rated Scale Responses .................................................................................175
37. Item 11 Rank Ordered List of Communication Attributes ........................................176
38. Item 15 Responses .....................................................................................................177
39. Global Virtual Team Success Factors........................................................................180
40. Three Components of the Capabilities and Skills Model Related to Findings .........197
41. REACH Model Components .....................................................................................213

xiii
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Participant Years of Proposal Experience......................................................................96
2. Degrees of Virtuality....................................................................................................170
3. Item 8 Responses .........................................................................................................171
4. Item 14 Responses .......................................................................................................173
5. REACH Input-Process-Output Model.........................................................................215

xiv
TABLE OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page
A: Invitation E-Mail.........................................................................................................234
B: Interview Questions and Protocol...............................................................................236
C: Survey Instrument.......................................................................................................240
D: Follow-On Questions..................................................................................................242
E: Informed Consent Form ..............................................................................................244
F: Global Virtual Team Leader Communication Study...................................................247

xv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my dissertation committee, editor and learning journey
partner for the support, guidance and direction you have provided me. The Association of
Proposal Management Professionals (AMPM) provided information, resources and
access to global virtual teams in the proposal industry to support this research project. To
my committee, thank you for your affirming words and willingness to listen to my ideas
no matter what! You provided me with the focus, attention to detail and tools I have
always needed. You empowered me with the structure, education and tools to take risks
and be creative while meeting the requirements to complete this research project. Jeanne
Dubi, thank you for embracing my project with professionalism and enthusiasm despite
the editing challenges that came along.
Larry S. Chengges’ poem expresses best how I feel about the significance of you
all in my life. This dissertation is about communication and the importance of
interactions. Each interaction and encounter has made me learn, grow and reflect along
the way. Every day for the past year and a half, I have seen this poem affixed to a vanilla
colored wall in a bright red frame. Although it was purchased at a yard sale for $5, the
meaning of the words is priceless. There are many relationships and the experiences in
my life have contributed to this moment. To all of you who have inspired me during this
learning journey, I appreciate the moments you have shared with me through this process
as an educator, mentor, coach and champion. Chengges’ poem is dedicated to you Dr.
Strand, Dr. Edmundson, Dr. Lim, The Association of Proposal Management
Professionals (APMP), Dr. Joshua Cotton and to Jeanne Dubi.

xvi
Every Moment We Are Together
Every moment that we are together,
I am learning something, and that knowledge becomes a permanent part of
me.
Though my feelings will be different a year from now,
Or ten years from now,
Part of the difference is you.
Because of you, I am
A different person
And the person
I will grow to become
With or without you
Will have gotten there
Partly because of you.
If you were not in my life right now, I could
Not be who I am right now.
Nor would I be growing
In exactly the same way.
Much of what I grow toward and change within
Myself, has to do with what I respond to in you.
What I learn from you, what I understand about myself through you,
And what I learn about my feelings
In the dynamic of our relationship
I do not worry about our ‘future together’
Since we have already touched each other
And affected each others lives on so many levels that we can never be
totally removed
From each other’s thoughts.
A part of me will always be you,
And a part of you will always be me.
That much is certain,
No matter what else happens.
Larry S. Chengges

xvii
DEDICATION
“I do not weep at the world … I am too busy sharpening my oyster knife …”
Since I was 16 years of age, Zora Neale Hurston’s quote has typified my approach
to life and taking on the challenges that are presented along the way. In each educational
milestone, Zora’s words expressed how I felt about adversity, learning and pushing
forward. In my youth, I focused on the outcomes of success. This dissertation process has
shifted my focus to the process of learning which has helped teach me more than I ever
thought possible. I am grateful for the lessons, experiences and moments that have
enriched my life along the way. The completion of this dissertation is dedicated to a
group of my greatest influences, supporters, and life partners who create meaning in my
life. You have devoted yourself to improving my life and the world around you and in
taking this learning journey with me. How can I ever say thank you and share how much
I appreciate what your guidance, patience, courage and shared experiences mean to me?
This dissertation is dedicated to a community of contributors who kept me focused,
faithful and passionate about the pursuit of lifelong learning and growth, to God’s grace,
and to my family whose enduring love, support and friendship provide meaning and
affirm my life’s purpose.
My Mother: Prisicilla Ann Cash, whose virtue, knowledge and wisdom were
invaluable in shaping the woman I am, and for nurturing my dreams and future.
My Husband: LTC (R) Ken Baskett, whose love and support and friendship have
been consistent and immeasurable.
My Sister: Tier Renee Cash, whose honesty and humor have provided me with the
ability to take a fresh perspective, to prioritize and live each day richly.

xviii
My Brother: Destorian Cash, whose skillful use of silence has taught me to listen
intently and to be fully present in all of life’s moments.
My nephew, Phillip, and niece, Myla, who taught me the value of being patient
and persistent in all of my pursuits. Thank you for your understanding and patience
throughout this journey.
A broad circle of family and friends that connect from the east to the west
stretching from Atlanta, to Kansas City and to California; I appreciate your sincere
wishes for completion and blessings along the way.
Dr. Phadra Williams Tuitt, my learning partner and classmate, thank you for
walking alongside me from the first day of class to this moment. Your support, advice
and sharing of yourself have made this experience remarkable.
Maretta, Nichole, Dana, Poppy and the families we serve, thank you for making a
positive difference in my life.

1
CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM AND ITS COMPONENTS
Introduction
Organizations are adjusting to meet the realities of a resource challenged world.
The borders that separate countries disappear as technology is used to link geographically
dispersed virtual teams. Virtual teams add value to organizations. Teams of every
description have been used to maximize the knowledge, skills and abilities that exist
within an organization in order to accomplish a goal (Weems-Landingham, 2004).
Virtual teams work across spatial distance, culture and language barriers to accomplish
organizational goals (Neilson, 2009). Therefore, effective leader communication is one of
the most critical elements of global virtual team effectiveness (Kuo, 2004).
The ability to deliver, develop and sustain effective messages that engage team
members is critical for success. Although various leadership characteristics emerge over
time, effective leadership communication is one of the most important characteristics
needed to promote and sustain the effectiveness of a global virtual team. Global virtual
team members depend on clear and complete written, oral and interpersonal
communications from their leaders (Grosse, 2002). A key aspect of effective leadership
communication is the delivery of compelling messages that engages the team, addresses
their underlying needs and influences decision making (Gratton & Erickson, 2007). It is
important to understand the communication skills and tactics leaders need to develop and
display in order to increase team effectiveness.
Effective leader communications integrate speech, rhetoric and discursive
practices to capture the attention of members and increase engagement through vocal,
verbal and visual elements of the message (Shockley-Zalabak, 2006). Studies show that

2
the use of silence, humor, and the creation of meaning contribute to effective group
processes, decision making and consensus (Clifton, 2009). Effective team leaders interact
frequently with members, select the best tools and encourage open communication that
foster engagement (Boule, 2008). Team engagement is a key driver for satisfaction,
motivation, commitment and trust, considered to impact productivity (Ross, 2006). After
the team has been formed, it develops different communication needs over time. Leader
communication is necessary to align and engage members to fully participate in future
actions.
Team leaders need to consistently communicate the same message to different
members of the team. In addition, effective leader communication contributes to
establishing the climate and norms for team behavior. However, in a fast paced and
constantly changing environment, sometimes communication is lost. Interpersonal and
relationship functions in computer mediated communications increasingly challenge
global virtual leaders. Investigating the experiences of team members can reveal
valuable insights about the best ways for global virtual teams to use leader
communication in order to increase team effectiveness.
Chapter One discusses the problem background and context; the purpose of the
study; the research questions are stated and terms are defined related to the focus of the
study. Then, the limitations and delimitations of the study are delineated, and lastly, the
significance of the study is outlined.
Problem Background
Several issues and trends in business have emerged over time leading to the
increased use of teams. According to Davidow and Malone (1992), organizations use

3
teams as a way to remain competitive in business. The United States shifted from an
agriculture society to an industrial society during the Industrial Revolution in the late
nineteenth century. Consequently, this shift into the technology and information age
contributed to the increased use of virtual teams. Improvements in productivity, total
quality management and efficiency decreased the need for large groups of workers to
accomplish the same tasks. In the 1960’s and 1970’s, as the service economy replaced
manufacturing jobs, a need for increased productivity was critical for business success.
The 1980’s was recognized as the most unproductive decade in American history
by economists. During the 1980’s, the knowledge economy focused on the collection,
synthesis and distribution of information. In the 1990’s a scarcity of resources and global
competition led to the formation of multinational companies that deliver cost effective
products and services to the market. In the 2000’s, globalization and technology are
drivers for the need to restructure work and to utilize teams that contribute to the overall
performance of the organization. The increased use of teams underscores the need for
effective communication.
Research on teams has been a topic of interest in multiple disciplines, including
organizational psychology, communications, group support systems, information
technology and leadership studies (McGrath, Arrow, & Berdahl, 2000; Martins, Gilson,
& Maynard, 2004; Ilgen, Hollenbeck, Johnson, & Jundt, 2005). Davidow and Malone
(1992) forecast that virtual organizations would be a way of life out of necessity by the
year 2015. Over time, changes in politics, trade, international relationships and
production provided opportunities for organizations to deliver products and services
globally (Daft, 2008). Researchers have studied many factors in team and group support

4
system literature: (a) computer mediated communication (Driskell, Radtke, & Salas,
2003; Grosse, 2002; Wiesenfeld, Raghuram, & Garud, 1999); (b) processes (Sarmiento &
Stahl, 2008; Tarmizi, Payne, Noteboom et al., 2007); (c) performance (Lipnack &
Stamps, 2000) and (d) effectiveness (Cordery & Soo, 2008; Gratton & Erickson, 2007);
and (e) leadership (Pauleen, 2004). There are several reasons why global virtual teams
are used by organizations (Brake, 2006). Globalization and advancements in technology
are the leading factors for the use of global virtual teams (Vance & Paik, 2006).
Globalization has contributed to a leaner, smarter and more efficient workforce.
Organizations are competing for customers, profits, creativity and information to become
sustainable, lead innovation and drive change (Dube & Robey, 2008). To adapt to
environmental changes and advances in technology, organizations have recognized a
need to gather, organize and apply information quickly using highly skilled people from
around the world. Survival of organizations in a competitive landscape depends on the
ability to: (a) adapt processes; (b) willingly accept diverse ideas and people; (c) manage
and act intelligently on information; (d) utilize a broad range of technologies; and (e)
master relationships (Daft).
Global virtual teams offer the benefit of working across time zones. In addition,
dispersed global virtual team members “. . . proximity to different customers, markets,
practices perspectives and resources in their local contexts can enhance flexibility and
innovation capability, thus increasing the ability of the team to balance local awareness
with a broader, strategic perspective . . .” of the virtual team (Vance & Paik, 2006,

5
p. 121). Global virtual teams enable organizations to increase their competitive
advantage by reducing costs, fostering collaboration and solving complex issues despite
geography or culture (Gowing, Kraft, & Quick, 1998).
Prior research on global virtual teams suggests that multinational companies use
global virtual teams extensively in many areas of business. For example, PGS, the
engineering division of Singapore based BOC Group, uses global virtual teams to
manage change efforts in 35 countries (Goodbody, 2005). Virtual teams are also used in
sales and service industries (Hackman, 2002). Ehsan, Mirza, and Ahmad (2008) indicate
that many multinational organizations use virtual teams to perform daily operations.
Management practices that enhance effectiveness of global virtual teams are an
essential component of organizational success in business and government (Maznevski &
Chudoba, 2000). Organizations use global virtual teams to: (a) implement business
processes (Goodbody, 2005); (b) implement and make important decisions; and (c)
integrate information (Maznevski & Chudoba). Parker and Clegg (2006) noted that as
organizations globalize, new management practices can be adopted by countries that may
be different from their traditional culture. National culture can influence how team
member perceive and react to different situations through verbal and nonverbal
communication (Vance & Paik, 2006). For example, Japanese collectivist cultures that
value saving face and reducing conflict may adopt communication practices to become
more transparent during crises (Deutsch 2006; Montoya-Weiss, Massey, & Song, 2001).
Pruitt (2006) reinforces the importance of social context in the application of theory to
solve conflict with people who differ culturally.

6
Globalization has contributed to outsourcing, strategic alliances and project based
work patterns (Vance & Paik, 2006). Global virtual teams provide flexible and low cost
work units to implement actions worldwide as companies restructure to: (a) recruit new
talent; and (b) integrate employees from mergers and acquisitions (Cascio & Shurygailo,
2003; Parker & Clegg, 2006). Leaders need the skills and abilities to understand and
manage empowered virtual team members effectively (Ehsan et al., 2008). Leaders use
communication as a tool to influence team effectiveness, performance; and to boost
motivation within global virtual teams (Neilsen, 2009).
There is a need to better understand the extent to which perceptions of leadership
communications impact performance in global virtual teams. Many global virtual teams
fail to meet their full potential. Team leadership and communication are two essential
factors for effectiveness in virtual teams (Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999). Several studies
have addressed these issues. First, a large number of laboratory studies have been
conducted using students in short term controlled environments (Gibson & Gibbs, 2006).
Second, the behaviors, attitudes, skills and characteristics of an effective leader’s
communication can influence effectiveness in global virtual teams. However, there is a
lack of research on the relative importance of leader communication factors on
effectiveness in global virtual teams.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research project was to: (a) identify the extent to which leader
communication factors are perceived to be important factors to team effectiveness; and
(b) identify effective communication practices within global virtual teams. Using
qualitative and quantitative mixed research methods, this exploratory study sought to

7
understand how members of real global virtual teams experience leader communications
and how leadership inspires a willingness from participative members to be productive,
engaged and motivated.
Research Questions
The research questions that directed this study are:
1. From a team member’s perspective, what are the leadership skills attributes, and
characteristics that contribute to effective leadership communication in virtual
team environments?
2. To what extent do leader communication factors most influence members to be
effective?
3. What tactics can leaders use to best influence effectiveness in the following :
a. inspire the willingness to be productive
b. boost morale
c. engage members
d. encourage participation and
e. utilizes collaboration tools and technology
Definition of Terms
The following terms were used and defined to establish the context and to provide
clarification.
Asynchronous Communication: Asynchronous communication refers to “time
constrained communication (e.g., text)” (Ehsan et al., p. 834).
Axial Coding: The process of relating categories to subcategories linked in the
data.

8
Cataloguing concepts: The process of developing categories for the data to match
descriptions across data.
Computer-Mediated Technology (CMC): “The communication that occurs
through computer-mediated technologies (i.e., E-mail, Audio/Video Conferencing) is
called Computer-mediated Communication (CMC)” (Ehsan et al., p. 834).
Conceptualization: Looking for consistencies in the data to explain the main
concern of inquiry.
Discovery: Exploration of the phenomena to generate data.
Face to Face (FTF): Co-located two-way communication interactions where all
participants in the communicative event share the same physical space, verbal and
nonverbal information.
Familiarization: Reading and reviewing data to formulate ideas and further
questions which might need answering.
Fit: Effortless application of the categories to the data.
High Performing Teams: Dyer, Dyer, and Dyer (2007) defined high-performing
teams as “those with members whose skills, attitudes, and competencies enable them to
achieve goals . . . team members set goals, make decisions, communicate, manage
conflict, and solve problems in a supportive trusting atmosphere in order to accomplish
their objectives” (p. 5).
Interdependence: The amount of collaboration needed to accomplish goals
between team members.
Linking: Making generalizations about the emergent patterns and concepts
supported by the literature and the data.

9
Meeting Facilitator: Guides the meeting processes, follows the agenda and
ensures that the purposes are met.
Meeting Processes: Dimensions of group dynamics within the context of the
meeting that impact group satisfaction and goal attainment: relationship development,
conflict management, participatory involvement, communication and emotional
intelligence.
Microanalysis: Line-by-line coding of the data.
Modifiability: Adapting and changing theory as new ideas and concepts emerge.
Objectivity: Awareness of the potential for bias and subjectivity in data analysis.
Open Coding: Coding without any preconceived categories.
Process facilitation: Process facilitation refers to the facilitator’s encouragement
of the group to follow the agenda, encouraging open and unbiased communication, and
participatory involvement.
Productivity: Accomplishing a goal using efficient processes, and leveraging
skills, knowledge, abilities and resources to reach a shared purpose.
Range of Variability: The degree patterns and themes in the data differ on
dimensions or attributes.
Recoding: The process of dividing categories into subcategories in the
interpretation and analysis process
Re-evaluation: Review and modification of the data as alternative explanations
and new information emerge.
Reflection: Establishing relationships, if any between your data and previous
research or academic studies–or even common sense knowledge.

10
Relevance: The extent to which the theory allows core problems, processes and
the main concerns in a study to emerge.
Saturation: The process of data analysis and refinement of categories where no
new patterns emerge during analysis.
Selective Coding: Limiting coding to variables that are related to the main or core
categories.
Sensitivity: openness to what emerges in the data analysis free from bias.
Synchronous Communication: Synchronous communication refers to
communication without time constraints (Ehsan et al.).
Team Change: Team change refers to the “teams’ ability to monitor its
performance and make changes as needed” (Dyer et al., p. 6).
Team Competencies: Team competencies refer to the “team’s ability to solve
problems, communicate, make decisions, manage conflict and so on” (Dyer et al., p. 6).
Team Composition: Team composition refers to the “team members’ skills,
experience, and motivation as well as team size” (Dyer et al., p. 6).
Team Context: Team context refers to “the need for teamwork; the type of team
needed; and the culture structure, and systems that support teamwork” (Dyer et al., p. 6).
Team Meeting: A meeting refers to a planned organizational event “. . . where the
processes of initiating, planning, executing, following through, and controlling occur”
(Makin, 2007, p. 43).
Theoretical Sampling: Sampling to discover emergent themes and patterns in the
data.
Theorizing: Formulating ideas into logical explanations.

11
Virtual Team: Virtual Teams are defined as geographically dispersed “teams
operating across time, space and organizational boundaries” (Ehsan et al., 2008, p. 833).
Virtual teams: (a) primarily use electronic technologies to communicate; (b) are
composed of members with diverse, skills, cultures and languages; and (c) have greater
demands on the role of the leader (Dyer et al.).
Work: The extent to which emergent data is meaningful to offer an explanation of
the phenomena under study.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations: According to Patton (2002), “all credible research strategies include
techniques for helping the investigator become aware of and deal with selective
perception, personal bias and theoretical predispositions” (p. 51).The focus of this
grounded theory study was on perceptions of leader communications from team
members’ perspectives. The role of the researcher was an important component of the
data gathering and analysis processes of this study. Four limitations that had the potential
to reduce the credibility and generalizability of this study follow: (a) sampling method
and size; (b) inappropriate administration of the data gathering instrument; (c) accuracy
of researcher judgments; and (d) researcher and participant bias. The sampling method
and size were limiting factors in this study. Riley, Wood, Clark, Wilkie, and Szivas
(2000) recognize that “in the majority of research cases it is not possible to study all the
elements in a particular set . . . for reasons of practicality” (p. 75).
A small purposeful sampling was used in this study. The results of the study may
not be generalized to virtual teams beyond the sample represented in the study.
According to Riley et al. (2000), “. . . to make claims for the wider population on the

12
basis of study of elements selected using purposive sampling is dangerous, as it cannot be
assumed that the characteristics of the elements are randomly distributed throughout the
population” (p. 77). However, when the purpose of the study is to build theory,
probability sampling is not necessary or the most appropriate method for the objectives of
this study (Patton, 2002). Theoretical sampling was also used to determine participant
selection criteria, data gathering and support of the constant comparison analysis method
in grounded theory (Patton).
The aim of this study was to contribute to the knowledge of best practices in
global virtual teams using a grounded theory approach. The researcher’s limited
interviewing skills had the potential to be a limitation of this study. To offset this
limitation, data were collected using multiple methods, including surveys and interviews,
as sources of information to strengthen the richness of data collected. The use of an
interview guide “helps make interviewing a number of different people more systematic
and comprehensive by delimiting in advance the issues to be explored” (Patton, 2002,
p. 343). Interviews were conducted—using visual and audio capability—to delimit issues
related to incorrectly observing the interviewees reactions to questions.
In addition to researcher and participant bias, perceptions and experiences also
had the potential to play a role as limiting factors in the study. For example, the
interviewer may have been reluctant to answer honestly due to confidentiality or
sensitivity of the nature of work. The data may be limited because of “. . . distorted
responses due to personal bias, anger, anxiety, politics, and simple lack of awareness
since interviews can be greatly affected by emotional state. . . recall error, reactivity of
the interviewee to the interviewer and self-serving purposes ” (Patton, 2002, p. 306).

13
Participants in the study were geographically dispersed in global virtual teams.
The data was “limited in focusing only on external behaviors—the observer cannot see
what is happening inside people” (Patton, 2002, p. 306). There were no direct
observations of the interviewees. In addition, time and money were limitations in the
conduction of the interviews and the analysis of data generated. Lack of resources may
have contributed to errors in observer judgments, transcription or interpretation of
responses. To offset these limitations the researcher used triangulation to determine the
“strength of evidence in support of a finding” (p. 467). Grounded theory uses systematic
procedures for data collection and analysis.
Delimitations: This research occurred in the context of global virtual teams in the
proposal development industry. Technology, communication and engagement are key
challenges for leading successful teams. The purpose of this study was to understand
leader communication factors from a team member’s perspective and to discover best
practices that influence effectiveness.
Grounded theory is the study of problems or main concerns and not units of
analysis (Glaser, 1992). Although team leadership may be shared across different
projects, participants’ experiences as a team member were analyzed. Participants in the
study fulfilled leadership and management roles within the proposal development
industry. Proposal professionals work in time-challenged, stressful and deadline driven
environments. Connecting business strategy with communications to engage all members
of the team and senior leaders is a priority for success. The aim of this study was not to
make generalizations about the larger population or elaborate on theory alone. The goal

14
of this grounded theory study was to discover best practices for leader communications
that can be used to build efficient and effective global virtual teams.
Significance of the Study
This study provides team leaders and practitioners with information that could
address the impact of leader communication in real global virtual teams. The results of
the study may provide practical implications for training leaders and offer best practices
for communication from a team member’s perspective in real teams. The significance of
leader communication is supported by the literature (Bergiel, Bergiel, & Balsmeier, 2006;
Brake, 2006; Shockley-Zalabak, 2006).
Existing research (Daft, 2008; Driskell et al., 2003; McGrath et al., 2000) has
studied team structure, content, performance and characteristics of effectiveness in virtual
teams. Leadership and communication have been identified as essential characteristics of
effective virtual teams. However, there is a gap in the literature on the effectiveness of
leader communication practices on performance and effectiveness from a team member’s
perspective. Several studies have identified a team leader’s skills, attributes, and
practices as important contributors to team effectiveness. However, other researchers
contend that leaders do not have an impact of effectiveness. Dyer et al. (2007) suggests
that properly managing the context, composition, and communication are important.
Daft (2008) recognizes that the maintenance of processes, structure, design and
support of teams are more significant contributors to team effectiveness than the
individual contributions of a leader. From this point of view, leadership is considered to
be shared by the team or emerges through the project life cycle. Whether leadership is

15
enacted at the individual level, shared by the team or simply emerges, effectiveness is
influenced by leadership and communication.
Further, the majority of existing studies conducted have been laboratory studies
with student participants (Hertel, Geister, & Konradt, 2005). Fjermestad and Hiltz (2000)
argue that results of virtual teams have been found to have more impact in studies of real
teams. Kuo (2004) suggests that future research should consider the subordinate’s
perspective in examining the impact of leadership on team effectiveness. Kuo found that
the transformational leadership style had the greatest impact on effectiveness. According
to Shockley-Zalabak (2006), “transformational leadership suggests that inspirational
leadership goes beyond the transaction between leaders and followers and literally
transforms or changes situations and circumstances through personal example and the
rhetorical capability for establishing vision” (p. 235). Transformational leaders use
rhetorical and persuasive skills to inspire followers by crafting clear targeted messages.
Transformational leader communications are strategic and novel for complex and
changing situations (Shockley-Zalabak).
Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, and Fleishman (2000) describe the
importance of leader communication:
Leadership has been traditionally seen as a distinctly interpersonal phenomenon
demonstrated in the interactions between leaders and subordinates . . . Effective
leadership behavior fundamentally depends on the leader’s ability to solve the
kinds of complex social problems that arise in organizations . . . Complexity,
novelty, and information ambiguity define one set of attributes that set apart
leader’s problem solving efforts. It is important to remember that leaders solve
problems in “real-world” settings where time is short, and demands are many.
(p. 11)
The leader’s ability to monitor the context and to be responsive positively impacts
team performance (Pauleen, 2004). To deliver leader communications, and to encourage

16
participation and involvement, leaders need to effectively use technology and
collaborative tools. Collaborative tools are essential to communication, problem solving
and decision making in virtual teams. In a virtual workplace, collaborative tools provide a
shared workspace for content management, visibility and accountability online, as well as
for project management. In order for virtual teams to harness their potential, all members
need to be productive contributors to the performance challenge. Leader communications
need to generate participation and involvement (Kerber & Buono, 2004). According to
Shockley-Zalabak (2006), “organizations of today and tomorrow are faced more than
before with understanding the concept of multiple stakeholders and how their
participation in all aspects of organizational life contributes to a variety of organizational
outcomes” (p. 243).
Collaborative tools help leaders monitor progress, assign tasks and set
benchmarks for performance. They also help integrate multiple perspectives and support
group processes for problem solving, for access to information and for flexibility
(Lipnack & Stamps, 2000). Diversity in teams helps to increase productivity (Ilgen et al.,
2005). It is possible that collaborative tools support interactional processes and may
moderate the effects of a leader’s lack of skills in interpersonal communication, design
and process abilities. More needs to be known on the extent to which a leader’s adoption
and utilization of collaborative tools impacts member perceptions of productivity.
Effective leadership, combined with team communication, helps mitigate the individual
and group disadvantages of virtual teamwork (Connerly & Pederson, 2005; Daft, 2008;
Yukl, 2006).

17
Effective leaders are expected to select the best technology for the task and to
provide guidance and direction on how to use computer mediated technologies.
Utilization of multiple sources of media and an understanding of the technology fit are
essential to sustaining messages, storing information and increasing the rate of work.
Leaders need to influence members to adopt technology tools to improve efficiency,
quality and manage risks, according to Cascio and Shurygailo (2003). Leaders also need
to know how to handle technical problems during technology failure in order to avoid
communication breakdowns or loss in asynchronous environments. Knowledge and
fluency of audio-visual tools, multimedia formats and technology applications strengthen
the team’s capacity for goal attainment. Social media and integrated technologies offer
increased platforms for members to share personal experiences and informal interaction.
Through effective technology use, leaders can better manage tasks and
relationships. Kerber and Buono (2004) found that continuous flows of communication
and regular meetings contributed to team effectiveness. Virtual teams are electronically
dependent on technology to communicate; often, the contexts of these interactions are
virtual meetings. Sivunen (2008) advises that virtual leaders may need a different set of
discursive skills than those needed in traditional teams. Leadership is enacted through the
use of discursive practices because “. . . deciding who can speak and what can be said
determines what is regarded as normal behavior” (p. 51). Clifton (2009) studied decision
making and influence in teams through content analysis Time and money are two
resources that require careful management. Team performance and effectiveness are
influenced by the use of technology. Perceptions are important to examine because
perceptions shape and form attitudes and behavior that influence performance (DeVito,

18
2005). Interpersonal perception is defined as the process through which we interpret and
evaluate people and their behavior (DeVito). Communication is consistently identified as
a significant contributor to team effectiveness and performance. Team leaders may fulfill
management roles or participate in a variety of work practices or have no training in how
to fulfill the role (Martins et al., 2004; Pauleen, 2004).
Although the teams may be effectively managed through processes, structure and
design, leadership behaviors may not be exhibited and communication may not influence
productive action. Leadership occurs through communication behaviors in interactions
with others. Leaders communicate about change, translate intentions into reality, propose
new strategies, and help sustain action to support decisions. Although, the leader and
subordinate relationship has been studied, the extent to which a leader’s individual
communication attributes, skills and behaviors influence perceptions of effectiveness
requires more attention.
Cragg and Spurgeon (2007) acknowledged that “there is a constant tension
between leadership as a state of being emphasizing a range of personal characteristics, as
against the understanding of tasks and behaviors that might constitute leadership”
p. 112). Cragg and Spurgeon argue that situational factors and competencies influence
leader effectiveness. Virtual teams’ leaders manage complexity under time challenged
conditions. LaFasto and Larson (1989) and Kayworth and Leidner (2001) found that
team leaders and members rate team outcomes differently. Prior research also indicates
that a subordinate’s perception of the supervisor’s ability to listen, be responsive,
sensitive and understanding to the subordinate’s message, positively influences
satisfaction with the tasks and the perceptions of leaders (Kuo, 2004). In addition, results

19
from a study on frontline managers revealed that managers lacked the skills needed to
“build relationships with people or influence people and decisions” (Shaw, 2005, p. 4). It
was the aim of this study to understand characteristics of effective communication from
team members’ perspectives.
Effective leader communications influence people to make a valuable
contribution to the team’s efforts (Kotter & Cohen, 2002). Leaders face several
challenges communicating in a virtual environment because of cultural, time and
geographic barriers. Strategic conversations help leaders harness team potential and
develop an open communication climate (Shockley-Zalabak, 2006). Team diversity has
also been found to be an important factor that leaders need in order to manage teams.
Diversity has been found to increase team conflict and decrease team cohesion. However,
diversity of members increases innovation and creativity. Grosse (2002) recognizes that
“understanding how to communicate effectively on virtual intercultural teams will help
business students and managers achieve higher performance and avoid costly delays in
projects and decision making” (p. 37).
Summary
Chapter One discussed the following information: (a) introduction and context of
the study; (b) problem background; (c) research questions; (d) definitions; (e) limitations
and delimitations; and (e) significance of the research. Chapter Two provides a review of
the literature with a focus on characteristics of effective leadership, success factors and
challenges that global virtual team leaders face.

20
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review presents research on global virtual team member
perceptions of leader practices. First, historical perspectives on teams are discussed, with
an emphasis on global virtual teams. Next, definitions of effective virtual teams are
reviewed, along with dimensions of virtuality. Then, virtual team success factors are
discussed with a focus on leader practices. From there, challenges faced by the team and
the leader are delineated. Further, this review describes best practices for team
effectiveness and the need for team leadership.
This review of the literature includes peer reviewed laboratory studies, team
studies, case studies, leadership studies and dissertations. There are five main topic areas
in this study: (a) definitions of virtual teams; (b) historical perspectives; (c) success
factors of virtual teams; (d) challenges faced on a virtual team; and (e) areas for future
research. The objective of this review is to provide an integrated overview of the current
literature regarding virtual teams.
Defining Virtual Teams
Lipnack and Stamps (2000) state that “a virtual team is a group of people who
work interdependently with a shared purpose across space time and organization
boundaries using technology” (p. 18). According to Maznevski and Chudoba (2000),
“global virtual teams are internationally distributed people with an organizational
mandate to make or implement decisions with international components or implications”
(p. 473). In defining characteristics of global virtual teams, national diversity is an
important characteristic. According to Cordery and Soo (2008), “. . . virtual teams may
have members with many nationalities from around the world. Equally, a virtual team

21
may contain a single nationality, although its members are distributed at different sides of
a continent communicating via e-mail and the intranet/Internet” (p. 488). Hertel et al.,
(2005) add that virtuality is a characteristic mainly based on information communication
technologies and tools. Spatial distance refers to the degree that teams operate across
different time zones (Gibson & Gibbs, 2006). The degree of virtuality can also be
measured by the degree of synchronization and the presence of nonverbal and paraverbal
cues (Jong, Schalk, & Curseu, 2008). Gibbs and Gibson make the distinction that
virtuality describes the degree to which factors that may disrupt team performance are
present. Gibson and Gibbs also suggest that there are four characteristics of virtual teams
that are significant in defining global virtual teams:
1. Geographic dispersion refers to the degree team members are in different
locations.
2. Electronic dependence is the degree of computer mediated communication
used compared with face to face communication.
3. Dynamic structure is defined as frequent changes between team members,
their roles and relationships.
4. National diversity is defined as diversity of members from different cultural
backgrounds, functions within the team and functions in the broader
organization.
Characteristics of Effective Leadership
Leadership has been described using many definitions, models and frameworks.
The leading theories studied in the 20th
century are trait theory, situational leadership,
transactional leadership and transformational leadership. Cragg and Spurgeon (2007)

22
argue that although differences exist in the development of leadership models, the
competencies and skills to enact influence are the key determinants of effective
leadership. Leadership frameworks and models can be used to describe the leadership
qualities and characteristics needed appropriate to the context.
Leadership has been studied with an emphasis on personality, traits, style, group
processes, skills, behavior and contingency theories (Kayworth & Leidner, 2001).
Ruggieri’s (2009) laboratory study of virtual teams found that transformational leaders
were perceived to be better than transactional leaders. Findings in the study emphasize
the need for leaders to manage team member perceptions by focusing on the relationships
and interactions rather than the task. Northouse (2007) contends that the leadership
process involves both leaders and followers. Interactions between leaders and
subordinates to solve difficult problems were the focus of Mumford et al.’s (2000) study.
The researchers contend that “leadership can be framed, not in terms of specific
behaviors, but instead in terms of the capabilities, knowledge and skills that make
effective leadership possible” (p. 12). Cragg and Spurgeon (2007) support the viewpoint
that competencies and skills are required for effective leadership.
Definitions of leadership vary on whether individuals or teams influence
outcomes for effectiveness or performance. Leadership can be appointed, shared or
emerge within organizations (Cascio & Shurygailo, 2003). However, Northouse (2007)
states that “leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal” (p. 3). Daft (2008) distinguishes that “leadership
is an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes and
outcomes that reflect their shared purposes” (p. 4). Further, Connerly and Pederson

23
(2005) emphasize that “leadership should be appropriate to the people, time, place and
cultural context” (p. 152). Interactions between the leader and the follower are important
characteristics used to define leadership.
Leadership in a diverse and rapidly changing environment requires the skills,
influence, awareness and ability to harness the potential of groups to accomplish goals
within organizations (Hoek & Mitchell, 2006; Mumford et al., 2000). Organizational
culture, shared values and adaptation to change influences leadership effectiveness and
organizational performance (Heifetz, 1994). Cragg and Spurgeon (2004) argue that
“leadership roles need to be created with reference to a model of effective leadership that
the organization endorses and upholds according to its culture and objectives” (p. 112).
Global virtual teams are dynamic and changing environments. This study recognizes that
perceptions of effective leadership may be influenced by organizational culture as the
situation or context changes.
Similarly, effective leadership is characterized by cultural competence.
Goldsmith, Greenberg, Robertson, and Hu-Chan (2003) describe fifteen essential
characteristics of global leaders based on research from The Global Leader of the Future
Inventory and interview questions. The inventory is a 360 degree feedback assessment of
leaders. The inventory was piloted on 200 leaders from 120 global organizations. The
top five characteristics of global leaders are: “(1) thinking globally, (2) appreciating
diversity, (3) developing technological savvy, (4) building partnerships and alliances and
(5) sharing leadership” (p. 2). The aim of this study is to understand more about
perceptions of leader behaviors and actions in effective global teams. Therefore,

24
characteristics that describe global leadership may influence team member perceptions of
leader best practices.
Historical Perspectives of Virtual Teams
There is evidence in the literature on factors that influence success; however the
literature on best practices is less abundant than research on team effectiveness,
performance and success factors in global virtual teams (Chudoba, Wynn, & Watson-
Manheim, 2005). The prevalence of the use of teams by organizations reached a peak in
1987 (Dyer, 2007). Research has led to the development of models of effectiveness based
on several studies that can be applied to global virtual teams (Katzenbach, 1998). Four
topics are discussed in this section. First, environmental issues and trends in business that
lead to the need for global virtual teams are described. Second, theoretical frameworks
are presented. Third, models of team effectiveness are delineated. Lastly, studies in the
literature most relevant to best practices in global virtual teams are reviewed.
Theoretical models of effective teams.
The theoretical basis of this literature review is the application of research models
to groups, traditional and virtual teams based on general input-output-process (I-P-O)
frameworks. Researchers in team literature provide frameworks to explain the
relationships between variable and outcomes. According to Hertel et al. (2005), I-P-O
models have been used to examine the effects of variables on teams, relationships
between factors, and moderators that impact performance. Inputs are variables brought to
the team that may influence interactions or outcomes (Shockley-Zalabak, 2006).
Processes refer to how tasks are completed (Shockley-Zalabak). Outcomes refer to the
results measured. I-P-O frameworks have been applied in previous studies that have

25
focused on planning, action and interpersonal processes in groups (McGrath et al., 2000)
and virtual teams (Driskell et al., 2003). Satisfaction, performance and effectiveness
outcomes have dominated studies in the literature relating to affective, cognitive and
behavioral factors within virtual teams. For example, Montoya-Weiss et al. (2001)
studied 35 global virtual teams from the United States and Japan. Results of the study
found that when processes are in place to coordinate the timing of information flows,
conflict behaviors were reduced in global virtual teams. A second finding was that
compromise behaviors have a negative effect on performance; however temporal
coordination moderates the negative effects.
Martins et al. (2004) reviewed literature on virtual teams using an inputs-
processes and output model. The researchers found that satisfaction, performance and
effectiveness outcomes have dominated studies in the literature on virtual teams.
Additionally, affective, cognitive and behavioral characteristics have been widely
studied. The strength of the review is that the majority of studies reviewed were based on
real organizations and not laboratory studies.
A growing body of research recognizes that teams with a high degree of virtuality
experience the effects of mediating factors through the team lifecycle (Hertel et al.,
2005). IMOI theoretical frameworks challenge the traditional I-P-O models commonly
used in group support systems, group, team and virtual team research. Hertel, Geister and
Konradt argued that “. . . developmental aspects have to be considered acknowledging
that different management tasks are crucial at different phases of a team implementation
process . . . moreover, a lifecycle model takes into account that disadvantages due to new
communication technologies might differ depending on the phases of teamwork” (p. 72).

26
Observations of team member performance are difficult in virtual contexts. Feedback,
monitoring and coaching processes were identified as challenges in virtual teams
(Lipnack & Stamps, 2000).
More recently, researchers have offered alternate theoretical models to the general
I-P-O framework. The consistent finding in these alternate models is the recognition of
groups as complex and constantly changing. McGrath et al. (2000) documented the shift
from inputs and outputs to a systems view of groups that considers the importance of
temporal factors and context. In a review of the literature, McGrath et al. identified the
limitations of I-P-O frameworks for understanding how groups change over time in real
organizations. The researchers argue that I-P-O frameworks are more commonly applied
in laboratory studies which fail to accurately reflect the complexity of real groups.
Ilgen et al. (2005) examined research on teams, work groups and groups. The
majority of the studies took place in real organizations. Studies were structured around
theoretical models that focus on team complexity as teams evolved. Ilgen et al. found that
prior research also focused on processes that lead to performance. The researchers
asserted that there is agreement in the literature that “. . . teams are complex, dynamic
systems, existing in larger systemic contexts of people, tasks, technologies and settings”
(p. 519). Ilgen et al. presented evidence that empirical research has shifted from
understanding why teams are effective to how the interactions over time and context
influence actions and behaviors. Past studies have focused on the mediating effects of
time, affective, behavioral and cognitive factors between inputs that lead to outcomes
(McGrath et al., 2000).

27
LaFasto and Larson’s (1989) three-year study focused on co-located teams in
order to understand effective teams and teamwork. Using grounded theory and theoretical
sampling, 32 high performing teams were interviewed and surveyed. The researchers
wanted to answer the following questions “what are the characteristics, features, or
attributes of effectively functioning teams?” (p. 19). Leaders and managers of the teams
were interviewed from multiple industries. Eight characteristics of effective teams were
identified and later used to assess team effectiveness. A feedback instrument was
developed by the researchers to “assess the extent to which an intact team, as described
by its leader and members possess or do not possess the characteristics” (p. 130). The
researchers asked the question “what aspects of teams and teamwork that leaders and
members are most likely to see differently?” (p. 137). The most significant finding was
that there were consistent differences between the perceptions of leaders and members
about team: (a) collaboration; (b) perceived team member commitment; and (c)
communication. The researchers found that team leaders rated the team higher than
members. Leaders were found to overestimate team effectiveness and performance. Dyer
(1994) agrees that one factor that contributes to team failure is the lack of awareness of
problems and the severity of issues that exist in teams. Latapie and Tran’s (2007) study
on conflict and subculture formation supports LaFasto and Larson’s findings that a strong
“teamwork culture” in more challenging, culturally diverse virtual teams is important
(p. 189).
A similar study on traditional healthcare teams used three data collection methods
to examine characteristics of effectiveness. Mickan and Rodger (2005) used a purposeful
sampling method. Participants in phase one of the study included 39 managers who had

28
extensive teaming experience and knowledge within healthcare. Data were collected in
structured interviews using repertory grids (comparison instrument used between all
participants) and a questionnaire to clarify responses. The data from interviews were
interpreted and the importance of 30 team effectiveness concepts was ranked. The
participants also allocated each of the 30 concepts to four themes that emerged around the
perceptions of teamwork: (a) environment; (b) structure; (c) processes; and (d) team
member contribution. In the second stage, 202 healthcare workers from diverse
backgrounds ranked the importance of 27 characteristics of team effectiveness. The
inventory was distributed through e-mail and internal communication tools to
departmental managers. Through descriptive analysis, six characteristic were consistently
ranked as significant contributions to team effectiveness: “mutual respect, goals,
leadership, communication, cohesion and purpose” (p. 364). The researchers used
findings to develop a model for healthcare teams. Results of the study are strengthened
by the use of three data collection methods (i.e., repertory grid interviews, clarification
questionnaires and inventory) and evidence supported by existing theoretical models in
team literature.
Since LaFasto and Larson’s (1989) early study, team research has explored
several factors that may impact leaders and members in virtual teams. Researchers have
addressed differences between leaders and members in studies focused on power (Panteli
& Tucker, 2009) and conflict (Arizeta, Ayestaran, & Swailes, 2005; Kankanhalli, Tan, &
Kwok-Kee, 2006; Paul, Samarah, Seetharaman, & Mykytyn, 2004). Several studies on
leadership effectiveness in virtual teams examined globally distributed teams (Cascio &

29
Shurygailo, 2003; Day, Gronn, & Salas, 2004; Kayworth & Leidner, 2001). An extensive
body of empirical research has explored virtual team management (Hertel et al., 2005).
Katzenbach and Smith (2003) distinguish high performance teams from real
teams in a model of team effectiveness. According to Katzenbach and Smith, “high
performing teams typically reflect strong extensions of the basic characteristics of teams:
deeper sense of purpose, more ambitious performance goals, more complete approaches,
fuller mutual accountability, interchangeable as well as complimentary skills” (p. 79).
There are six critical elements that characterize a high performing team:
1. First, high performing teams have a strong personal commitment to one
another’s growth and personal success (Katzenbach & Smith; Dyer et al.,
2007).
2. Second, high performing teams have greater flexibility that enables personal
growth and interchangeable skill development (Katzenbach & Smith).
3. Third, high performing teams have a greater sense of humor and have more
fun that is “real and only sustainable if it feeds off the team’s purpose and
performance aspirations” (Katzenbach & Smith, p. 78).
4. Fourth, high performance teams have high goal interdependence and integrate
team responsibilities with job responsibilities (Makin, 2007).
5. Fifth, high performance teams have open communication systems and shared
leadership that encourage unfiltered debate. Open communication allows team
members to properly manage conflict build vulnerability based trust, and
share experiences (Dyer et al.; Lencioni, 2002; Makin; Katzenbach & Smith).

30
6. Last, high performing teams have the interpersonal and technical skills to:
a) become self sufficient; b) influence the performance ethic in the larger
organization; and c) adapt to change (Hackman, 2002; Katzenbach & Smith;
Dyer et al.).
There are two prominent perspectives in the literature on team leadership:
(a) leadership brought to the team by an individual; and (b) leadership that emerges from
the team (Day, Gronn, & Salas, 2004). In the first perspective, research suggests that a
team leader’s ability to transfer knowledge, stimulate creativity and facilitate team
learning are key determinants of effectiveness in virtual and global teams (Daft, 2008;
Lipnack & Stamps, 2000). However, most leaders have little experience or training for
working in global virtual teams.
Hackman (2002) challenges the concept that a leader’s actions have an effect on
the performance of the team. Instead, Hackman’s view is that “. . . the main responsibility
of leaders as creating and maintaining the five conditions that increase the chances that a
team will, over time, become increasingly effective in carrying out its work. The five
conditions that need to be created and maintained are: “(1) is a real team rather than a
team in name only; (2) has a compelling direction for its work, (3) has an enabling
structure that facilitates rather than impedes teamwork, (4) operates within a supportive
organizational context, and (5) has available ample expert coaching in teamwork” (p. 31).
Dyer et al.’s (2007) Four C Model (context, composition, competencies and change
management) of teams effectiveness supports Hackman’s belief that the design and
support provided to teams are as important as the attributes and behaviors of individual
leaders. These perspectives are important because the focus of the research is on team

31
leader practices that impact performance over time rather than behavioral style in real
global virtual teams.
Leading virtual teams.
Leadership and team building are essential to the development of high
performance teams. Studies of traditional teams suggest that there is a positive
relationship between team leadership and effectiveness (Hackman, 2002). Other studies
found that leadership in teams is determined at the team level rather than the individual
level (Katzenbach & Smith, 2003). Studies have also found that leadership in constantly
changing environments depends on the ability to solve complex social problems
(Fairbairn, 2005; Mumford et al., 2000). Many studies on leadership in teams and groups
emphasize the importance of the leader’s role (Cascio & Shurygailo, 2003; Day et al.,
2004; Kayworth & Leidner, 2001; Yukl, 2006).
Katz (1955) challenged the notion that more emphasis should be placed on the
development of technical, human, and conceptual skills to lead effectively. More recent
literature confirms that global leaders need to have technical, human, conceptual and
political skills (Goldsmith et al., 2003; Hakonen & Lipponen, 2008). Miranda and
Bostrom’s (1999) study examined the leader’s meeting facilitation role in the successful
completion of a task in small group. The leader’s facilitation role as a communicator is
most important to inspire the willingness of members to fully engage in virtual meetings
to reach meeting outcomes. Leadership is enacted in the context of meetings through
discursive practices that influence the willingness of members to commit to future action
and adopt organizational culture and rules (Shockley-Zalabak, 2006). Nilesen (2009)
contends that “ leadership—even if not performed at executive level—is a social process

32
of interaction with reality being defined in a way, which makes sense to the participants,
and is also a system of dependency, in which individuals entrust the power to interpret
and to define reality to others” (p. 46).
Conversely, Dyer et al. (2007) contend that a more structured approach to high
performance team development is present. Dyer et al. assert that high performance teams
are developed by properly managing the team context, composition, competencies and
change management skills of the team. Further, through regular evaluation processes and
continuous monitoring practices, high performance teams adapt to meet performance
challenges (Dyer et al.). Crisis and change are acknowledged as two key drivers that
create the urgency for high performing teams to develop (Kotter, 2002). Moreover, the
role of the leader is educative in the initial stages of development. The leader educates the
team about the common goals, roles and responsibilities needed, opens communication,
and gives more responsibility to team members (Dyer et al.). The team leader shifts from
being an educator to that of being a coach. In the coaching role, leaders engage team
members to share their perspectives about role responsibility and processes to accomplish
objectives. Dyer et al. state that the team leader needs to be seen as a “knowledge helper”
(p. 63). As a facilitator, the team leader’s role is to intervene in conflict, direct attention
to new issues, and to ask questions to redirect team focus (Dyer et al.). As the team
leaders’ roles shift from educator, coach and facilitator, the role of visionary remains
constant. The team leader needs to continuously envision the competencies and
composition of the team using effective inquiry methods and dialogue.
Effective leadership is critical to the success and performance of virtual teams
(Cascio & Shurygailo, 2003). Several researchers support the notion that leadership

33
emerges within the team at different stages of the team’s life cycle (McGrath et al.,
2000). Later studies point out that team members may work together on a variety of
projects in different roles (Caiscio & Shurygailo). Accordingly, researchers have
investigated leadership as a team construct rather than an individual construct (Ilgen et
al., 2005). High performance teams have shared leadership where the team leader’s role
shifts to meet the performance challenge of the team (Katzenbach & Smith, 2003; Dyer et
al., 2007). Team members initiate action wherever the team needs it. Antoni’s (2005)
findings recognize the positive effects of group processes on satisfaction and
performance in teams when task interdependence is high. Situational factors have been
viewed to create opportunities for leadership throughout the team (Gibson & Gibbs,
2006). Researchers contend that leaders need to: (a) act appropriately to the situation; (b)
select the best technology for the task at hand; and (c) communicate effectively to all
members, according contingency based leadership theory (Northouse, 2007). Kayworth
and Leidner (2001) support a contrasting view of the leader’s role in global virtual teams
based on the behavior complexity theory. These researchers argue that effective leaders
are able to perform multiple leadership roles in complex and changing environments
related to “. . . task achievement, individual team member needs and team cohesion”
(p. 12). For these reasons, the behavior complexity theory perspective is an appropriate
leadership framework to apply to global virtual teams (Kayworth & Leidner). Empirical
studies in team literature have focused on: (a) Transformational Leadership; (b)
Transactional Leadership; (c) Contingency Theory; (d) Social Context Theory; and (e)
Leader-Member-Exchange Theory (Martins et al., 2004; Northouse; Yukl, 2006; Pauleen,
2004).

34
Hans’ (2006) study investigated the impact of team diversity and perceptions of
leader support and citizenship behavior in virtual teams. The study is important because
the factors that impact team member relationships which may contribute to team
effectiveness were examined. Hans explained the concept of tenure diversity as group
member identification based on similar demographics and in-group similarities. The
concept of tenure diversity has implications for the impact of subgroup formation on
virtual teams. Interestingly, the author discussed how the Leadership Member Exchange
Theory (LMX) may be applied in virtual teams in describing in groups and out groups.
According to Hans, group members who are less alike are more likely to be a part
of the out-group and experience less leader support. Further, the use of technology may
decrease the importance of demographic similarity as a determinant for negative effects
on virtual teams. The author used a variety of data collection measures to analyze
organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and perceived leader support. A subset of data
was analyzed from a study that collected data by using phone interviews and
questionnaires of 38 virtual teams. Tenure diversity was calculated using a mathematical
formula to determine differences between group members. OCB and leader support were
measured using adaptations of scales used in previous research. Hans found that the
perception of leader support overcomes the negative impacts of dissimilarities among
group members. Overall, the findings reveal that diversity among team members can
have a negative impact on OCB in virtual teams.
In addition to team leadership, there is evidence that there are other influence
factors that contribute to team effectiveness. Kuo’s (2004) study examined the impact of
transactional, transformational and paternalistic leadership styles, team social capital and

35
team diversity on effectiveness. Kuo found that transformational leadership has a positive
effect on team effectiveness. Social capital was found to have a positive impact on
effectiveness. In particular, the frequency and degree of informal communication, shared
organizational values and increased levels of trust positively impact team effectiveness.
Team diversity of roles and functions had a positive impact on effectiveness, while
demographic diversity characteristics (age, education, education) had negative impacts.
Kuo’s study did not explore cultural diversity in the study. Kuo strongly suggests that
future research include “. . . the subordinate’s perspective to study how the characteristics
of subordinate cause impact on behavior of leader and team effectiveness” (p. 275). The
focus of this research is on team member perceptions of leader practices in global virtual
teams. Kuo’s findings and directions for future research support the need for more
knowledge about leadership, diversity and member perspectives on effective practices in
global virtual teams.
Heifetz (1994) argues that “effectiveness means reaching viable decisions that
implement the goals of the organization” (p. 22). Conversely, perceptions of leader
effectiveness may also be subjective (e.g., value judgments) and largely depend on the
values, experiences and bias of the evaluator (Deutsch, 2006; Heifetz; Northouse, 2007).
Leadership scholars (Ikenberry, 2008; Kouzes & Posner; 2007; McCoy, 2007;
Northouse) support the contention that gender, culture and ethics are factors that could
influence effectiveness in organizations.
Research indicates that gender stereotypes, bias and differences in leadership style
and effectiveness exist between men and women (Northouse, 2007). The role of gender
in leadership studies has indicated that: (a) women are perceived to be more effective in

36
feminine leadership roles; (b) women use a more participatory involvement; and (c)
women tend to use transformational leadership styles more than men according to
Northouse. Little is known about the role of gender in leadership style in global virtual
teams. Team composition is based on the skills and competencies needed to accomplish
goals. There is interest in research in international business and organizational
management literature. Gowing et al. (1998) raised several questions regarding
management that are relevant to this study and warrant further exploration when they ask
“What do organizations and managers need to know about managing across boundaries
and managing non employees? What kind of leadership is required for employees and
contractors alike in the changed organization?” (p. 19). Organizations have changed the
composition of the workforce from low skilled workers to include more problem solvers
and thinkers who use “knowledge, judgment, experience and instinct” to add value to
organizations (Liu, Magjuka, & Lee, 2008, p. 21). These trends in globalization and
changes in the workforce demonstrate a need to understand how to increase productivity
and enhance performance of workers.
Hertel et al. (2005) examined human resource management tasks and issues in
teams with a high degree of virtuality. Over 100 studies were summarized and practical
recommendations for managing virtual teams were drawn from the research. According
to the researchers, there is agreement that all teams have characteristics of virtuality. The
degree of virtuality was used to describe characteristics of the teams studied. Strengths of
the study included documented practical recommendations for virtual team leaders and
members supported by existing research.

37
A leader’s communication competence in the use of computer mediated
technologies is an essential factor for global virtual teams (Sivunen, 2008). Sivunen
studied four globally distributed teams in information technology, marketing and human
resource functions. The researcher found that team members expected leaders to give
guidance on the use of computer mediated communication practices. In addition,
members expected leaders to communicate goals clearly, be supportive and encourage
participation. The researcher suggests that leaders need information seeking, negotiating
and networking skills to maximize team potential. The data were triangulated by using
interviews about team practices and observations of member interactions and analyzed
using qualitative methods.
Workman (2007) found that teams with highly structured processes and open
communication had higher levels of performance than teams focused on adhering to
schedule and quality. Workman asserts that team openness and structured processes,
rather than the leader alone contributed to higher levels of performance. The leader’s
ability to analyze and sense factors that impact the team and respond to the needs of the
task, team members, and context is essential to effective team performance (Pauleen,
2004). Additionally, effective global virtual teams have the support of top level leaders to
help in understanding and fulfilling roles to the entire organization (Goodbody, 2005;
Hackman, 2002). Leadership communication should be guided from top level leaders
during change (Kotter, 2002). The dynamic environment of global virtual teams warrants
the support of leaders and competencies in communication from team leaders to ensure
alignment through change and cultural differences (Barczak, McDonough, &
Anthanassiou, 2006).

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