2. THE 4 TYPES OF BONES…
• Long bones- have extended longitudinal axes and expanded and often
uniquely shaped articular ends. Ex. The femur and the humerus
• Short bones- they are box shaped structures, they are about as broad
as they are long. The tarsal and carpals are some examples of these
types of bones.
• Flat bones- generally broad and thin with a flattened and or curved
surface, certain bones like the shoulder blades, ribs and breastbones are
some examples of these.
• Irregular bones- normally clustered in groups and come in various sizes
and shapes, spinal and facial bones are examples of these bones,
sesamoid bones are singly bones that are found close to the joints . (2)
3. 6 MAJOR STRUCTURES OF A TYPICAL LONG BONE
• Diaphysis- it’s the main shaft like portion, it’s a hollow cylindrical shape and the thick
compact bone that composes it, it provides strong support without cumbersome weight.
• Epiphyses- is the end of a long bone, provides generous space near joints for muscle
attachments and also gives stability to joints.
• Articular cartilage- thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers articular or joint surfaces
of epiphyses
• Periosteum- it’s a dense white fibrous membrane that covers bone except at joint
surfaces, most of this penetrate the underlying bone and this is important because it
contains blood vessels that become incorporated into bones during their initial growth.
• Medullary- a tube like hollow space in the diaphysis of a ling bone, in adults it’s filled
with connective tissue rich in fat called yellow marrow.
• Endosteum- a thin epithelial membrane that lines the medullary cavity of long bones
(2)
4. THE MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF BONE AS A TISSUE
AND HOW STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
CONTRIBUTES TO FUNCTION
The major constituents of bone tissues are separated into different
parts like the inorganic salts part of the bone matrix consist of
hydroxyapatite (crystals of calcium and phosphate for bone hardness)
and magnesium and sodium is also found in the bones, another part
of the bone tissue is measuring the bone mineral density and the
organic matrix which is composed of collagenous fibers and
amorphous mixture of protein and polysaccharides called (ground
substance). The structural organization adds overall strength and
gives the bone a degree of resilience. (2)
5. DISCUSS EACH OF THE MAJOR COMPONENTS
OF A HAVERSIAN SYSTEM
• Lamellae: cylinder shaped layers of calcified matrix
• Lacunae: small spaces containing tissue fluid in which bone cells lie
stuck between the hard layers of the lamellae
• Canaliculi: Small canals radiating in all directions from the lacunae
and connecting to each other and into larger canals
• Haversian canal: nutrients and oxygen move through canaliculi to the
lacunae and their bone cells (2)
6. DESCRIBE THE FUNCTION OF THE THREE
MAJOR TYPES OF CELLS FOUND IN BONES
• Osteoblasts: bone forming cells; small cells that secrete a
specialized organic matrix called osteoid
• Osteoclasts: bone reabsorbing cells; multinucleate cells that are
responsible for the active erosion of bone minerals
• Osteocytes: mature bone cells; nondividing osteoblasts that
have become surrounded by matrix and now lie within the
lacunae (2)
7. DISCUSS THE FIVE HOMEOSTATIC FUNCTIONS
OF BONES
• SUPPORT: Bones are the supporting framework of the body
• Protection: the bony boxes or cages protect the delicate organs
that lie within
• Movement: bones combines with their joints create levers
• Mineral storage: bones store the majority of calcium,
phosphorus, and other minerals
• Hematopoiesis: also known as blood cell formation is a vital
process that the red bone marrow carries out (2)
8. COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE DEVELOPMENT
OF INTRAMEMBRANOUS AND ENDOCHONDRAL
BONE
• intramembranous bone- process by which most flat
bones are formed within connective tissue
membranes.
• endochondral bone- process by which bones are
formed by replacement of cartilage models.
• They are similar because both of them are
formations of things. (2)
9. DESCRIBE STEPS INVOLVED IN BONE
FRACTURE REPAIR
• Fracture
• Formation of fracture hematoma
• Formation of internal and external callus
• Bone remodeling complete
• Vascular damage occurring immediately after a fracture results in a hemorrhage
and the pooling of blood at the point of injury. The resulting blood clot is called a
fracture hematoma. As the hematoma is resorbed, the formation of specialized
callus tissue occurs. It serves to bind the broken ends of the fracture on both the
outside surface and along the marrow cavity internally. The rapidly growing callus
tissue effectively “collars” the broken ends and stabilizes the fracture so that the
healing can proceed. If the fracture is properly aligned and immobilized and if
complications do not develop, callus tissue will be actively “modeled” and
eventually replaced with normal bone as the injury heals comepletely. (2)
10. COMPARE THE BASIC STRUCTURAL UNITS OF
BONE AND CARTILAGE.
Bone Structure:
The ends of a long bone are called the epiphyses (singular, epiphysis), which are covered by a
layer of hyaline cartilage called the articular cartilage and articulate with other bones. The internal
area of the epiphyses contains red bone marrow where erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes
(white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets) are produced. The shaft of a bone is called the
diaphysis. The diaphysis contains an internal medullary cavity that is lined by the endosteum and
usually filled with yellow marrow, where fat is stored. Except for the articular cartilage, a bone is
covered by a tough outer membrane called the periosteum., (2)
Cartilage Structure:
There are three major types of cartilage in the body: 1) hyaline cartilage, 2) fibrocartilage, and 3)
elastic cartilage. Elastic cartilage exists in the epiglottis and the eustachian tube. Fibrocartilage,
often exists temporarily at fracture sites. However, fibrocartilage is permanently present in three
major locations in the body: 1) the intervertebral disks of the spine, 2) as a covering of the
mandibular condyle in the temporomandibular joint, and 3) in the meniscus of the knee. The third
type of cartilage, hyaline cartilage, is most prominently found in diarthroidal joints covering long
bones. In addition, hyaline cartilage forms the growth plate by which long bones grow during
childhood. The structure and mechanical behavior of hyaline cartilage in diathroidal joints, is
typically called articular cartilage, and the meniscus of the knee. (2)
11. IDENTIFY THE THREE SPECIALIZED TYPES OF
CARTILAGE
• Hyaline- most common type of cartilage, is a mixture of ground substance (rich in
chondroitin sulfate and unique gel like polysaccharide) and collagenous fibers, it
covers articular the surfaces of bones, forms costal cartilages, forms the
cartilage rings in the trachea, bronchi, and the tip of the nose. (Ex: trachea)
• Elastic- external ear, epiglottis, Eustachian, and tubes that connect the
middle ear and nasal cavity, large numbers of easily stained elastic fibers confer
the elasticity and resiliency typical in this type of cartilage, elastic cartilage has a
yellowish color and has a greater opacity than hyaline cartilage
• Fibrocartilage- sustains great weight when covering the articulating
surfaces of bone or when serving as a shock absorbing pad between articulating
bones in the spine (2)
12. COMPARE THE MECHANISM OF GROWTH IN
BONE AND CARTILAGE
• Growth in bone- bones grow in diameter by the combined action of osteoblasts
and osteoclasts
• Osteoclasts enlarge the diameter of the medullary cavity by eating away the bone
of its walls
• Osteoblasts from the periosteum build new bone around the outside of the bone
• Growth of cartilage- occurs in 2 ways, interstitial and appositional
• Interstitial- cartilage cells within the substance of the tissue mass divide and begin
to secrete additional matrix
• Appositional- occurs when the chondrocytes in the deep layer of the
perichondrium begin to divide and secrete additional matrix, the new matrix is then
deposited on the surface of the cartilage, causing it to increase in size. (2)
13. COMPARE THE CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
ACCORDING TO BOTH STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
• Joints are classified into 3 major categories by a structural or
functional scheme.
• Structural- named by the type of connective tissue that joins the
bones together (fibrous or cartilaginous joints) or by the presences
of a fluid-filled joint capsule (synovial joints)
• Functional- joints are divided into 3 classes by the degree of
movement that they permit: synathroses (immovable),
amphiarthroses (slightly moveable): diathroses (freely movement)
(2)
14. IDENTIFY THE TYPES OF MOVEMENT AT
SYNOVIAL JOINTS AND GIVE EXAMPLES OF
SPECIFIC JOINTS WHERE EACH OCCURS
• Ball-&-socket joint: This joint allows for freedom of rotation as well as
back-and-forth movement in all planes. It allows for the most freedom
in movement of any other joint. EX: shoulder and hip joint (2)
• Condyloid joint: They cannot rotate. A condyle is a curved process that
fits into a fossa on another bone for its articulation. You also find this
type of joint at the mandible-to-temporal bone joint. EX: joint between
radius and carpal bones (2)
• Plane (or Gliding) joint: Although these joints appear to offer a lot of
flexibility in movement direction, they do not offer a great distance in
movement. But they can move in many directions and they can rotate.
EX: between carpal and tarsal bones (2)
15. • Hinge joint: Hinge joints offer ease in movement, but only provide for
movement in one plane (no twisting, no sliding side-to-side). Keep in mind
that although a good example of a hinge joint is at your elbow, there are
two bones in your forearm that interact at the elbow joint. Only one of
them, the ulna, makes a hinge joint. When you are in the anatomical
position and you bend your elbow as if bringing your palm to your
shoulder, that is the movement of the hinge joint. EX: elbow joint (2)
• Pivot joint: This joint is one where one bone spins around on another bone.
Although only one direction of spin has been diagrammed above, the
spinning can occur in either direction. This type of joint is in our elbow (for
the twisting motion) and is between our first two cervical vertebrae. EX:
joint between first and second cervical vertebrae (2)
• Saddle joint: In the saddle joint, both of the bones that meet have odd
shapes, but they are totally complementary to one another. So in the
saddle joint, each bone has both concavities and convexities, but they fit
nicely. EX: Thumb joint between first metacarpal and carpal bone (2)
16. CANCER TREATMENT MAY GENERATE A NEED
FOR A BONE MARROW TRANSPLANT.
OSTEOPOROSIS IS A CONDITION
CHARACTERIZED BY AN EXCESSIVE LOSS OF
CALCIUM IN BONE. THESE 2 CONDITIONS ARE
DISRUPTIONS OR FAILURES OF 2 BONE
FUNCTIONS. IDENTIFY THESE 2 FUNCTIONS AND
EXPLAIN WHAT THEIR NORMAL FUNCTION
SHOULD BE.
17. • Hematopoiesis: This bone function is responsible for
the formation of blood cells. This function is carried out
by the myeloid tissue or bone marrow.
• Mineral Storage: Normally this bone function is
responsible for maintaining the homeostatic level of
blood calcium. If there is too much calcium in the
blood, calcium is stored in the bones. If there is too
little calcium in the blood calcium is removed from the
blood. (4)
18. EXPLAIN WHY A BONE FRACTURE ALONG THE
EPIPHYSEAL PLATE MAY HAVE SERIOUS
IMPLICATIONS AMONG CHILDREN AND YOUNG
ADULTS.
19. • The epiphyseal plate plays a major role in the
elongation of long bones in Infants and adolescents, in
adults who have stopped growing the plate is replaced
by an epiphyseal line. A fracture along the epiphyseal
plate in a child or adolescent could result in impeded
growth and growth defects. In later life arthritis would
be apparent in the joint where the fracture happened.
(1)
20. DURING THE AGING PROCESS, ADULTS FACE
THE ISSUE OF A CHANGING SKELETAL
FRAMEWORK. DESCRIBE THESE CHANGES AND
EXPLAIN HOW THESE SKELETAL FRAMEWORK
CHANGES AFFECT THE HEALTH OF OLDER
ADULTS.
21. • the frame work changes because; the body cannot
support no longer that much weight. It affects the body
by there are no more cartilage in the joints and some
people start having arthritis. (1)
