Review and Revision

1. Research Paradigms
Honors RMD
February 2012

2. Research paradigms
Broadly speaking the are two dominant views or
paradigms over the nature of knowledge and how it is
developed (Epistemology).
• Positivism (scientific method) and
• Interpretivism.
Note: They are often in warring camps.
Some see these oppositions as false and detrimental
to research.

3. PARADIGMS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
POSITIVIST INTERPRETIVE
MIXED METHODS POST-POSITIVIST
POST- POST-MODERNIST
STRUCTURALIST
COMPLEXITY
THEORY
Cohen et al, 2011

4. Positivism
Positivism is a philosophy states that the
only authentic knowledge is scientific
knowledge, and that such knowledge can
only come from positive affirmation of
theories through strict scientific method.

5. POSITIVISM
 Positivism refers to the school of thought that the only „true‟
or valid form of knowledge is that which is „scientific‟.
 The principles and methods of the natural sciences (such as
chemistry or physics) are used to study human
behaviour, which in itself is objective and tangible in nature.
 The researcher can observe human behaviour and measure
„facts‟, and „laws‟ or theories of behaviour can be developed.
 Concepts such as feelings, emotions, beliefs and so on have
no place in research as they cannot be directly observed or
measured, they are unreliable and they are not constant over
time.

6. POSITIVISM- cont
 Positivists attempt to mirror the methods of the natural
and physical scientists.
 Through observing reality you can produce laws of the
social world which can be generalised from one context to
another
 Your role is to be an objective analyst, collecting data and
interpreting it in a value free way.
 You are detached, neither affect nor are affected by the
subject of your research.
 Emphasise the quantifiable, the observable, and
replication (the ability to repeat research)

7. Interpretivism
Interpretivism, is a way to gain insights
through discovering meanings by
improving our comprehension of the
whole. Qualitative research explores the
richness, depth, and complexity of
phenomena.

8. Interpretivism emphasises -
 That the world is too complex to be reduced to a
series of law-like generalisations.
 the uniqueness of people, and circumstances and
the constant nature of change.
 details matter - in an attempt to better
understand reality.
 subjective reality matters.

9. Features of research paradigms
Positivistic paradigm Interpretivist paradigm
World is external and objective World is socially constructed and subjective
Observer is independent Observer is part of what is being observed
Science is value free Science is driven by human interests
Look for causality Understand what is happening
Reduce phenomena to simple elements Look at totality of each situation
Focus on facts Focus on meaning
Generalises from sample to population Generalises from one setting to another
Tends to produce quantitative data Tends to produce qualitative data
The location is artificial The location is natural
Concerned with hypothesis testing Concerned with generating theories
Easterby Smit, et al, 2004

10. Criticism – Positivist research
 Reduces nature and life into measureable terms
and ignore notions of individuality, freedom, and
moral responsibility
 Fails to take into account our unique ability to
interpret the world
 Regards human behaviour as passive, and control
 Findings are general not related to the real word as
research is conducted in control conditions

11. Criticism - Interpretivist research
 Abandons the scientific procedures of verification
and generalisation
 Overlooks fact that the very process of observation
and interpretation that researchers engage in is it
self a product of the circumstances
 Focus too narrowly on specific instances and cases

12. Post positivist research
 Research is broad rather than specialised – lots of
different things qualify as research;
 Theory and practice cannot be kept separate. We
cannot afford to ignore theory for the sake of ‘just the facts’;
 The researcher’s motivations for and commitment
to research are central and crucial to the enterprise
 The idea that research is concerned only with
correct techniques for collecting and categorising
information is now inadequate
Ryan, n.d.

13. Questions
Comments

14. Positivist and Interpretivist Research
How does all this link to the practice of research in
education?
Paradigm Research Methodology
Your belief system Your research approach
 Positivist  Quantitative
 Interpretivist  Qualitative

15. Positivist research
 Research which combines a deductive approach
with precise measurement of quantitative data to
enable the discovery and confirmation of causal
laws

16. Interpretivist research
 Research which combines an inductive approach
with communication and observation of qualitative
data to discover the reasons for events.

17. Few more concepts
before a short break

18. Deductive vs Inductive
Deductive - begins with an abstract idea and
principle and works toward the concrete details
to test these ideas.
 Theory Testing
Inductive - begins with concrete details and
then works toward abstract ideas or general
principles or laws.
 Theory Building

19. REASONING: INDUCTIVE
 Start with EXAMPLES/OBSERVATION and conclude a
theory/IDEA
 Moving from specific observations, looking for pattern &
regularities, formulate some possible hypothesis
(explanations) and end up with broader generalisations
 “Bottom-up approach
Theory
Tentative
Explanation
Identify
Pattern
Observation
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/dedind.php

20. REASONING DEDUCTIVE
 Start with THEORY/IDEA and apply it to EXAMPLES
 Moving from THEORY, then narrow it down to specific
HYPOTHESIS (proposed explanation), collect
OBSERVATIONS to address the hypothesis. APPLY the
knowledge to EXAMPLES
 ”top-down” approach
Theory
Possible
Explanations
Observation
Confirmation/
examples
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/dedind.php

21. Why does the approach matter?
Whether you take a scientific (positivistic) or
phenomenological approach will influence:
 What research questions you ask
 What methods you use to collect your data
 What type of data you collect
 What techniques you use to analyse your data

22. Methods
Refers to techniques used in research
 Survey questionnaires
 Interviews
 Observations
 Document reviews
 Experiments

23. Methodology
 refers to more than a simple set of methods
 refers to the rationale and the philosophical
assumptions that underlie a particular study.
 Examples
 Quantitative
 Qualitative
 Mixed methods

24. Research Design
 refers to the blue print that you prepare to conduct
your research
 It lists the steps that you need to take.
 tells what is to be done at what time.
 tells how the goals of a research project can be
accomplished.
 Key features of any research design include the
methodology and methods sampling, data
collection and analysis, procedures and
instruments etc.

25. Questions
Comments

26. The Philosophical Position….
Positivism Phenomenology
Reality is objective and Reality is subjective
Ontology: what is the singular, apart from the and multiple as seen
nature of reality? researcher by the participants
Epistemology:
Researcher is independent Researcher interacts
What is valid
from that being researched with that being researched
knowledge?
Axiology:
Value free and un-biased Value-laden and biased
Role of values
• Cross-sectional studies • Action Research
RESEARCH • Experimental studies • Case Studies
STRATEGY • Longitudinal studies • Ethnography
• Surveys • Grounded Theory
• Etc... • Hermeneutics, etc...

27. What is a Theory?
A set of statements or principles devised
to explain some phenomena, especially
 one that has been repeatedly tested or
 is widely accepted and
 can be used to make predictions about the
phenomena.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/theory