the Presentation discuss the relevant mitigation and adaptation measures which should be employed to address the impacts of Global climatic changes on marine and fresh water habitats and Biota

1. Discuss the relevant mitigation and adaptation
measures which should be employed to address
the impacts of Global climatic changes on marine
and fresh water habitats and Biota
WANDERA DANIEL

2. Introduction
 Is a significant and lasting change in the statistical
distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging
from decades to millions of years
 These changes can be caused by processes internal to
the Earth, external forces (e.g. variations in sunlight
intensity) or, more recently, human activities
(Pidwirny, 2006).

3.  Humans are the major force in changing the world
ecosystems for thousands of years.
 Since the start of the industrial revolution, combustion
of fossil fuels has increased CO₂ by 25%
 At more local and regional scales, humans have
dramatically altered nutrient regimes, hydrology, and
species compositions of ecosystems (Carter, 2003)
 Global rise in mean yearly temperature over the past
50 years were primarily due to anthropogenic ally
produced greenhouse gases e.g. CO₂ , methane, NO₂
and halocarbons (IPCC 2001).
 Climate change is perceived to rise to the forefront of
threats to biodiversity

4.  The concern is that these impacts of climate change
are likely to fall predominantly on poorer communities
who are least able to cope - now and in the future
 Thus need for better resource management will help to
manage current climate variability and shocks, since
global warming is not just a potential threat but an
inevitable reality.
 therefore important to give much attention to dealing
with the impacts of a rapidly changing climate
(adaptation) and to measures which tackle the drivers
of that change (mitigation).

5. Causes of global climate change
 1. Natural causes
 a) Continental drift
 The continents that we are familiar with today were
formed when the landmass began gradually drifting
apart, millions of years back
 This drift also had an impact on the climate because it
changed the physical features of the landmass, their
position and the position and flow channels and
currents of water bodies

6.  This drift of the continents continues even today; the
Himalayan range is rising by about 1 mm every year
because the Indian land mass is moving towards the
Asian land mass, slowly but steadily.
 They are thought to have adverse effect on the Indian
subcontinent and Tibetan plateau.
 They prevent frigid, dry winds from blowing south into
the subcontinent, which keeps Asia much warmer
than corresponding temperate regions in other
continents. Also cause heavy in Terei region (Shi et al.
1978)

8.  b) volcanoes
 When a volcano erupts it throw out large volumes of SO2,
water vapor, dust, and ash into the atmosphere
 large volumes of gases and ash can influence climatic
patterns for years
 gases and dust particles partially block the incoming rays
of the sun, leading to cooling.
 SO2 combines with water to form tiny droplets of sulphuric
acid
 In 1816 often referred to as "the year without a summer."
 Significant weather-related disruptions occurred in New
England and in Western Europe with killing summer frosts
in the U.S and Canada.
 These strange phenomena were attributed to a major
eruption of the Tambora volcano in Indonesia, in 1815.

9.  c) Earth’s tilt
 The earth makes one full orbit around the sun each
year. It is tilted at an angle of 23.5° to the perpendicular
plane of its orbital path
 Changes in the tilt of the earth can affect the severity
of the seasons - more tilt means warmer summers and
colder winters; less tilt means cooler summers and
milder winters.
 According to Astrobiology magazine, many climate
scientist, (Gavin, Francus, Younger dryas) have shown
considerably evidence that the Sahara desert was once
a grassland ecosystem and much wetter than it’s today

10.  These scientists have held the belief that Sahara dried
up due to a change In the earth’s orbit.
 Gavin explains that around 8,000 years ago, Earth’s
orbit was slightly different to how it is today, the tilt
changed from 24.1 to 23.5 degrees in the present days.
 d) Ocean currents
 Oceans cover about 71% of the Earth and absorb about
twice as much of the sun's radiation as the atmosphere
or the land surface.
 Certain parts of the world are influenced by ocean
currents more than others

11.  The warm current along the Norwegian coast keeps
much of the Greenland-Norwegian Sea free of ice even
in winter.
 In El Nino years, the Equatorial counter current
intensifies in the pacific ocean.
 This currents flows towards the east and it is a partial
return of water carried westward by the north and
south Equatorial currents. Which brings changes in
weather raising/lowering air temp.

12.  2. human causes
 a) green house gases and their sources
 CO₂ is undoubtedly, the most important greenhouse
gas in the atmosphere.
 Changes in land use pattern, deforestation, land
clearing, agriculture, and other activities have all led to
a rise in the emission of CO₂ and methane (released
from rice or paddy fields that are flooded during the
sowing and maturing periods).

13. Carbon dioxide variations over the last 400,000 years,
showing a rise since the industrial revolution

14.  b) aerosols
 Anthropogenic aerosols, particularly sulphate aerosols
from fossil fuel combustion, are believed to exert a
cooling influence
 During 1968 symposium on global effects of
environmental pollution in Dalla, Texas
 Scientist bryson argued that the air in North Atlantic
was twice as dirty in the late 1960s as it had been in
1910s,
 Suggesting that the natural process that washed
aerosols out of the atmosphere could not cope with the
human emissions.

15.  c) Cement manufacture
 cement-making is responsible for approximately 2.5%
of total worldwide emissions from industrial sources
(energy plus manufacturing sectors).
 It release CO₂ in the atmosphere directly when CaO₃ is
heated.
 d) Land use
 Irrigation, deforestation, and agriculture
fundamentally change the environment
 evidence suggest that the climate of Greece and other
Mediterranean countries was permanently changed by
widespread deforestation between 700 BC and 1 AD

16. Effects of climate change 1 Higher Temperatures
 Higher winter temperatures have been observed to
decrease the survival rate of the eggs of Yellow perch(a
coldwater species).
 Elevated temperatures have increased mortality of winter
flounder eggs and larvae and lead to later spawning
migrations
 Lead to coral bleaching. Increased temperatures facilitate
the death of the zooxanthallae which is contains the
photosynthetic pigment leaving the coral with a white
color

17.  Increases in temperature (and salinity, see below) from
changes in precipitation, evaporation, river runoff and ice
melt are likely to lead to increased vertical stratification
and
 water column stability in oceans and lakes, reducing
nutrient availability to the euphotic zone and thus
primary and secondary production
 range of predicted global mean temperature and sea
level rises for 2015 and 2050
Year GLOBAL TEMPERATURE CHANGE GLOBAL SEA LEVEL RISE
2015 0.20 - 0.70° C 0.04 - 0.06 m
2050 0.75 - 2.50° C 0.08 - 0.25 m

18.  2. flooding
 Flooding can affect water quality by:-
 Transporting contaminants into water bodies and also
overload storm and wastewater systems. The
contaminants include heavy metals from industries
and nutrients.

 In rural areas, runoff would pick up animal wastes,
pesticides, and fertilizers as it traversed farms and
fields.
 The combination of higher surface water
temperatures and increased nutrient loading from
agricultural runoff may increase the occurrence of
Algae blooms in rivers and lakes, hence eutrophication
of the water bodies.

19.  3. Increased water salinity
 Sea level rise may affect freshwater quality by
increasing the salinity of coastal rivers and bays and
causing saltwater intrusion into fresh ground water
resources in coastal regions, (Haman, and Brown,
2002)
 Ocean Acidification
 Small changes in the acidity of the oceans can result in
severe ramifications. As they become more acidic,
corals and other organisms will find it increasingly
difficult to build new skeletons and shells and those
that already exist may begin to dissolve.

20.  Sea level rise
 Rising sea levels are caused by both the warming
oceans and melting ice
 In 2006, the first inhabited island was lost to rising sea
levels. The island of Lohachara, home to some 10,000
people, sank beneath the surface of the Bay of Bengal
 Sea level rise will flood developed and developing
countries alike.
 Even some of the world's most important and heavily
populated cities, such as New York, London and
Bangkok, are at risk of disappearing under the rising
waters.

21.  Effects on aquatic fauna
 Warming could change the temperature structure of
oceans and lakes, availability of dissolved oxygen, and
cycling of nutrients, all of which will affect aquatic
flora and fauna
 Acid rains affects the most sensitive stage in fish life
cycles
 Eggs and fry might also be killed when variation in Ph
are changing gradually
 Disrupted Food Webs - Increasing ocean
temperatures and the addition of significant amounts
of fresh water from melting ice caps and glaciers may
cause a disruption in weather patterns and a
breakdown in the marine food web.

22.  Phytoplankton may also be cut off from their food
supply as surface temperatures warm
 A decrease in phytoplankton, affect marine mammals
(whales, seals and dolphins), sea birds (albatross) and
important commercial fish species (cod, salmon and
tuna).
 Depleted Marine Ecosystems
 The spread of diseases will increase as warmer climates
create more hospitable environments for disease
carrying agents.
Some species may shift to cooler areas in an attempt to
avoid rising temperatures; these forced migrations will
cause the interlinked elements within ecosystems to
become vulnerable or fall apart.

23. Adaptation measures
 Adaptation to climate change refers to adjustments in
natural or human systems in response to climatic
stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or
exploits beneficial opportunities. (Smith. et al.1999).

24.  1. focus on water security - Water security lies at the
heart of adaptation to climate change and should be a
sound early adaptation strategy. This includes.
 upper watershed management to maintain water
storage,
 allocation of water to ecosystems through the
application of environmental flows, and
 restoration of flood plains and mangroves.
 2. integrated water resources management
 instrument to explore adaptation measures though it
is still in its infancy (1992 Rio Earth Summit).

25.  Key attributes that commend it the best approach
 It recognizes the holistic nature of the water cycle and
explicitly seeks to engage in an integrated way, the full
range of sectors that use, impact or are impacted on by
water, thus ensuring the approach of one sector does
not, through water, undermine activities in another.
 It recognizes that the establishment of effective
institutions will be essential if the conflicts and trade-
offs between different activities and interests are to be
successfully and equitably managed.
 It is inherently adaptive. IWRM recognizes that
approach to water management will have to change as
the sectors of society change and that there can be no
once-and-for-all prescription.

26. 3. Prevention of flood – include;
 promoting better land use zoning of areas vulnerable
to flooding or constructing flood protection or storage
works
 Integrated Flood Management can be adopted to
manage floods and can include hydropower
development
4. Sharing of information –
 Better access to information, and transparency of its
use, promotes more rational decision-making
 more decisions on water are be made at the basin and
local levels, accurate, consistent, timely and relevant
information about water and climate needs to be
available

27.  Developing county-scale maps depicting which areas
will require shore protection (e.g. dikes, bulkheads,
beach nourishment) and which areas will be allowed
to adapt naturally
 Analyzing the environmental consequences of shore
protection
 Promoting shore protection techniques that do not
destroy all habitat
 Improving water use efficiency, planning for
alternative water sources (such as treated wastewater
or desalinated seawater), and making changes to water
allocation

28.  Protecting coastal freshwater resources from saltwater
intrusion
 Governments through ministries and other
stakeholders can help in adaptation by;
 Build institutions that can consider and respond to
climate change threats along with other pressures such
as overfishing, pollution and changing hydrological
conditions
 Enhance resilience of fishing communities by
supporting existing adaptive livelihood strategies and
management institutions that are designed to support
adaptation to climate change

29.  The NGOs and CBOs can help in Identifying the
current and future risks, potential impacts and
resilience/recovery mechanisms within communities,
and
 engage communities together with governmental and
non-governmental agents in preparedness planning.

30. Climate change bill 2014 kenya
 There is establishment of national climate change
council and main functions will be
 advise the national and county governments on
legislative and other measures necessary for mitigating
and adapting to the effects of climate change;
 provide coordination between and amongst various
governmental and non-governmental stakeholders
dealing with matters related to climate change;
 advise the national and county governments on
regional and international conventions, treaties and
agreements on climate change to which Kenya is a
party or should be a party to and follow up the
implementation of the conventions, treaties and
agreements to which Kenya is a party;

31.  coordinate gender-responsive public education and
awareness programmes on climate change and
facilitate gender-balanced public participation in
climate change programmes at the national and
county governments;
 coordinate the conduct of research on climate change
including the collation and dissemination of
information relating to climate change to the national
and county governments, the public and stakeholders;
 establish and manage a national registry for
appropriate mitigation actions by public and private
entities;

32. On matters pertaining formulation and action plans for
national and counties . The actions plans, strategies and
policies shall not be limited to measures relating
 adaptation;
 mitigation;
 emission levels and trends;
 education and creation of awareness, including integration
in the educational curricula;
 assessment of climate change vulnerability and climate
change threats;
 capacity building in strategic climate change sectors;
 research, development and technology transfer;
 identification of climate change opportunities;
 national and county action plans and strategies;
 measurement, verification, reporting; and
 statutory obligation with respect to public and private
entities in climate change mainstreaming.

33.  The Bill also establishes a Climate Change Fund,
managed by a Council, into which monies
appropriated from the consolidated fund and other
donations received in the form of donations,
endowments, grants or gifts or monies raised by the
Council would be paid and subsequently utilized for
the achievement of the mandate and objectives of the
Council.

34. Mitigation measures
 Mitigation is described as a human intervention to
reduce greenhouse gas sources or enhance carbon
sequestration. Examples are;
 Maintaining and restoring native ecosystems,
 Protecting and enhancing ecosystem services,
 Managing habitats for endangered species,
 Creating refuges and buffer zones, and
 Establishing networks of terrestrial, freshwater and
marine protected areas that take into account
projected changes in climate.

35. 1. Emissions reduction from Deforestation and
Forest Degradation in Developing Countries
(REDD)
 Forests play an important role in global carbon budget
acting either as sinks or sources of carbon
 provides positive incentives to support voluntary
policy approaches that result in gross reduction in
GHG emissions from deforestation
2. Catchment approach to conservation (ICA)
 a tool for accelerating soil and water conservation
activities which includes the farmers

36.  This includes; identifying priority catchment areas
 creating awareness
 conducting Participatory Rural Appraisals (PCA)
which involves the community in data gathering and
problem identification,
 planning and design, development of community
action plans, layout of soil and water conservation
measures, implementation and follow up activities.
 In Kenya, this was started in mid 1987 and covered 40
districts (according to the National Soil and Water
Plan of 1987/88).

37.  Implementation is left to the community, though
incentives such as payment and tools are handed out to
facilitate construction of more labour intensive measures
such as cut-off drains and artificial waterways
3. Payment for Ecosystem services (PES)
 voluntary transaction which has a well defined
environmental service or form of land use likely to secure
that service
 The key characteristics with PES is maintaining a flow of
specified ecosystem “service” – such as clean water,
biodiversity habitat or carbon sequestration capabilities –
in exchange for something of economic value

38.  In Mexico (Parana)-The State allocates funds to
municipalities to protect forested watersheds and
rehabilitate degraded areas
4. Reducing Demand for Emission Intensive Goods
and Services-
 policies aimed at reducing emissions of greenhouse
gases would shift the demand for goods and services
away from fossil fuels and
 products that require substantial amounts of those
fuels

39. 5. Increasing use and development of low carbon
technologies
 Coal mining produces more greeenhouse gasaes
 development of technologies to capture and store
emissions of coal-fired power plants can be a mitigating
factor
 Natural gas can also be used instead of coal
6. Separation of rainwater and sewage
 When building new canals, or renovating existing ones,
wastewater should be separated from storm water.
Though expensive, it reduces the risk of untreated waste
water entering environmental waters.

40.  Other mitigation measures may include;
 Reduces extreme rainfall runoff events thereby reducing
stream bank erosion and other flooding impacts.
 Hazard mapping/vulnerability assessment
 Knowledge of local climate patterns (downscaling of
climate change scenarios).
 Research to understanding regional climate processes,
detection and attribution, impacts, vulnerability and
adaptation

41.  Restoring mangroves and protecting coral reefs, which
will contribute to CO2 absorption, coastal protection,
fisheries and livelihoods;
 Managing aquaculture to optimize carbon retention,
reduce energy use and minimize impacts on
mangroves and other important habitats
 Supporting the use of static-gear – pots, traps,
longlines and gillnets, which uses less fuel than active
gear such as trawls and seines – and therefore emits
less CO2;

42. Limitation to mitigation and
adaptation measures
 Sea level rise from the expansion of warmer water
would continue for many centuries at a gradually
slowing rate, as the oceans will continue to absorb heat
 Lack of cooperation in trans-boundary aquatic
resources management

43. Conclusions
 The uncertainties associated with climate change call
for adaptation responses that can deliver immediate
benefits
 Measures such as the catchment approach to
conservation, and development of clean development
mechanisms should be put into place in addition to
reducing emissions through degradation and
deforestation

44. Recommendations
 Climate change risk assessments should be
encouraged more at national, rather than at
regional/global scales, of the physical changes in
oceans, lakes and rivers;
 Economic research to evaluate the potential costs of
adaptation and mitigation initiatives, and how to fund
them should be put in practice by various
Governments and stakeholders

45. Reference
 Shi, Yafeng, Li, Qichun (1978). Distribution, features
and variations of glaciers in china
 Wikipedia (2007) Climate change.Wikipedia
encyclopedia.
 Houghton, J.J. (1995). Climate Change, IPCC,
Cambridge University Press

46. Thank you for
listening