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1. BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION & LANGUAGE
 Humans are the only species that evolve language
 This leads to hypothesis humans’ capacity for
language communication is different than that of
animals
 This hypothesis rests on two assumptions
1) Some of the differences between humans and their
nearest primate relatives are due to humans’
innate capacity for language
2) Humans’ languages are different in kind and
degree from system of animal (communication)
language i.e. humans’ languages have some
features that impossible for animals to learn
These two assumptions examined in relation to: physiological
factors in language and teaching chimpanzees language

2. Physiological factors in language
 Certain features of human physiological factors suggest that
humans are well-sited for communication (i.e. vocal language)
 The features are for language alone or part of humans’ capacity
to think???
 These features are categorized in two areas:
 Peripheral Features a) humans have superior articulatory
apparatus, i.e. humans have a set of facial muscles that allow
great mobility of lips, cheeks, and jaw, b) they have evolved a
muscular and flexible tongue that can move freely in the mouth
cavity, c) and they have teeth set closely side by side, d) their
pharynx, the passage from the back of the mouth to the
entrance of the lungs is longer than that of other primates
this enables humans to produce speech sounds
 Features in central nervous system this gives advantage with
language, humans have cognitive abilities enable to use
language

3. TEACHING OTHER PRIMATES (CHIMPs) LANGUAGE
Chimps’ vocal track is sufficiently different from that of
humans
‘Sarah’ understands some language elements but
cannot use that language spontaneously

4. DEVELOPMENT OF SPEECH ORGANS OF LIVING CREATURES
 AGNATHA: A fish-like creature: no jaws, mouth, pharynx, and
gills to breathe
 AMPHYBY-like creature: lungs, larynx, vocal cords, short
trachae and tongue
 MAMMALS: Epiglottis, arytenoid, and cricoid, thyroid, vocal
cords, lungs, larynx develops enbales to produce sounds
OTHER BIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT are facial muscles, teeth,
and larynx
 LAST DEVELOPMENT HUMANS
 Organs of Speech like lungs, larynx, pharynx, and shape of
mouth basically similar to mammals. BUT human’s develops
further
 Human’s larynx is longer than that of other primates

5.  HUMAN EVOLUTION: Homo Sapiens (175.000 years ago) modern
humans
Language 100.000 years ago.
 HUMANS vs CHIMPANEES: Language Communication
 Humans can use language while other primates cannot
 Ability to use language is genetic shown by biological structures of
organs of speech
 Non-humans: thin and long tongue, all parts of the tongue are in
mouth cavity, functioning as non-vocal needs, such as licking,
swallowing, small-size tongue not flexible to move up and down,
etc.
 Mobility is limited, the air cannot be controlled to produce distinctive
sounds
 Non-human larynx is near the air-exit of the nose; so when it breathes
is pushed upwards and the air cannot pass through the nose.
 The teeth not in order and different sizes, lips not flexible (i.e.
function to eat)
 Articulation of the sounds is not possible

6.  (HUMAN) MOUTH CAVITY
 Shaped proposionately and so do its sizes.
 Tongue is flexible for mobilization:
Back of the tongue is within the pharynx so the tongue is easily
moved up and down, etc it can produce a variety of
sounds: /i/, /I/, /u/, /a/, /æ/, /e/, /ә/, /^/
 Parts of the tongue against articulatory points (Organs of
speech)  to produce consonantal sounds.
 Human teeth are in order, shaped accordingly the air can go
out the mouth orderly.
 Lips can move flexibly e.g. lower meets the upper lip, the
sounds of /p/, /b/, and /m/ are produced
 /f/ and /v/????
 Nasal (the air from the lungs goes out through the nose) and
Oral (the air from the lungs goes out through the mouth)
sounds

7. Biological Foundation in Language
 Humans are the only species that have evolved language
 Humans’ capacity for language is different than that of Animals
 Humans have innate capacity for languages
 Humans’ language has different system than that of animal
communication
 Human language has features that make it impossible for
animals to learn.
 Physiological Factors in Language
 Humans are well suited for language communication by vocal
language
 Human’s articulatory apparatus
 Human’s set of facial muscles that enable him to move the lips,
cheeks, and jaw
 Humans evolve a muscular and flexible tongue that can move
freely in the mouth cavity
 They have teeth set side by side to form a barrier or ridge
 The Pharynx( (i.e. the passage from the back of the mouth)

8.  Entrance of the lungs is longer than that of other primates
enable to produce sounds
 Features of nerves system: e.g. innate capacity for language,
larger and heavier brains, cognitive abilities, etc
 LANGUAGE IN THE CHIMPANZEES
 Speculation primates (i.e. closest to humans): could learn to
speak
 Chimpanzee’s vocal tract is sufficiently different than that of
humans’.
 Study of ‘Sarah’, a female chimp she showed good
understanding of language but there is no evidence that she
could use language spontaneously.
 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS RELATED TO LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
PROCESS
Children acquiring language goes through the same process:
 6 to 8 weeks: Cooing, sounds similar to the sounds of vowels
and consonants

9.  6 months: Babbling, sounds similar to syllables
 1 year: producing sounds similar to words
 Mono-morphemic language: children produce syllable or part
of it
 Poly-morphemic language (e.g. Indonesian): children produce
the last syllable, e.g. ikan /tan/
 One year old: children produce one-word utterance
 Two years old: Two-word utterance
 4-5 years old: complex sentences
 Biological Development and Language Acquisition
(Lenneberg, 1969)
 12 weeks: Baby supports head in prone position; vowel-like
cooing
 16 weeks: Head is self supported, can shake ‘rattle’, respond to
human sounds and vowel-like cooing, search for speaker,
produce chuckling sounds

10.  20 weeks: sit with props, produce consonantal sounds and
vowel-like cooing, vocalization different of mature language
 6 months: sit and uses hands for support, babbles similar to
single syllables, like /ma, mu. da, di/
 8 months: stands holding on, frequent repetitions of sounds,
distinct intonation patterns, utterances show emphasis and
emotions
 10 months: creeps, vocalizations and bubble blowing are
produced, imitates sounds and responds differently to words
heard
 12 months: walks held by one hand, identical sound sequences
are heard like /mama/, /dadada/, can respond to commands
 18 months: grasp, comprehension and release fully developed,
gait is still stiff, words repertoire are three and less than 50.
Understanding is in progress producing word units into two-
word phrases are uncommon
o Weeks, months, and years are relative biological factors of
humans are not the same

11. o However, the order of acquisition is the same from cooing to
babbling to one-word and two-word utterance; Children start
with comprehension then production
o Humans can acquire language like that of native speaker, if the
process of acquisition is done in certain ages between 2 to 12
years old. After 12 (i.e. puberty) humans cannot acquire the
native’s accent perfectly.
o Language is biological phenomenon the emergence of one
language element is genetic; nobody can accelerate nor slower
the emergence of language element, e.g. /m/ and /k/. /-ing/ and
other grammatical morphemes, no and /don’t/.
o Environmental factor is important in LA but this factor only
stimulates what already exists in human biology, e.g. Echa is
forced to produce /j/ and /r/ but she could not produce these
sounds She may be able to produce the sounds when she is
biologically ready!