Analysis of Association of PTSD symptoms in U.S. population to 9/11 terrorist attack by Region, Gender and Race

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1 j'aime•470 vues

Arneta Mayes, MHA

Santé & Médecine

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The Suicide (SPI) and Violence Potential Indices (VPI) from the Personality Assessment Inventory: A Preliminary Exploration of Validity in an Outpatient Psychiatric Sample Samuel Justin Sinclair & Iruma Bello & Maren Nyer & Jenelle Slavin-Mulford & Michelle B. Stein & Megan Renna & Daniel Antonius & Mark A. Blais Published online: 9 February 2012 # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012 Abstract Assessing risk of harm to self and others is an important component of psychological assessment, although methods for risk assessment vary considerably. The Person- ality Assessment Inventory (PAI) is frequently administered to evaluate general psychological functioning, as well as to provide information about suicide and violence risk. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the construct validity of the PAI Suicide (SPI) and Violence Potential (VPI) indices in a sample of 158 psychiatric outpatients referred for psychological and neuropsychological assessment within a large northeastern academic medical center between 2007 and 2011. Results generally supported the convergent and divergent validity of both SPI and VPI when evaluating groups with and without a history of suicide and violence risk, and effect sizes were moderate to large even after controlling for other covariates. SPI and VPI scores were also found to vary significantly across different psychiatric groups in ways that would be expected. Finally, we explored the relationship between SPI and VPI, and executive functioning impairment—a neuropsychological variable found to be associated with impulsive self and other- harming behaviors. Consistent with prior research, SPI and VPI were found to be significantly elevated in groups dem- onstrating executive dysfunction. The implications of these findings and specifically the utility of using SPI and VPI in the assessment of risk are discussed. Keywords Personality assessment inventory. Risk assessment . Suicide potential . Violence potential Psychologists and other healthcare providers are increasingly being asked to provide clinical judgments regarding a person’s level of risk of harm to self and others in both clinical and non- clinical settings. As some have noted previously, current frameworks for evaluating risk are varied and often imprecise, which when coupled with low base rates of suicide and aggression in the general population results in prediction models that are frequently unreliable (Monahan et al. 2001; Wenzel, et al. 2011). Further, research over the last decade has demonstrated that factors underlying risk for suicide and aggression are themselves complex, and include a wide array of affective, neuropsychological, biological, demographic, and contextual variables (Dougherty, et al. 2004; Jollant et al. 2005; Keilp, et al. 2001; Monahan et al. 2001; Monahan and Steadman 1994; Soloff, et al. 2000; van Heering and Marusic 2003; Wenzel et al. 2011). As a result, accurately predicting the near-term risk of suicidal an.

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Journal of Affective Disorders 133 (2011) 477–480 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Affective Disorders journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jad Research report Exploring the relationship between underlying dimensions of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in a national, trauma-exposed military sample Jon D. Elhai a,⁎, Ateka A. Contractor a, Patrick A. Palmieri b, David Forbes c, J. Don Richardson d,e a Department of Psychology, University of Toledo, Ohio, United States b Center for the Treatment and Study of Traumatic Stress, Department of Psychiatry, Summa Health System, Ohio, United States c Australian Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health and Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia d Operational Stress Injury Clinic, St. Joseph's Health Care London, Parkwood Hospital, London, Ontario, Canada e Veterans Affairs Canada, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada a r t i c l e i n f o ⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Psych Toledo, Mail Stop #948, 2801 W. Bancroft St., Toled United States. Tel.: +1 419 530 2829; fax: +1 419 53 URL: http://www.jon-elhai.com (J.D. Elhai). 0165-0327/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.04.035 a b s t r a c t Article history: Received 30 March 2011 Received in revised form 25 April 2011 Accepted 27 April 2011 Available online 19 May 2011 Background: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression are highly comorbid and intercorrelated. Yet little research has examined the underlying processes explaining their interrelationship. Method: In the present survey study, the investigators assessed the combined symptom structure of PTSD and depression symptoms, to examine shared, underlying psychopatholog- ical processes. Participants included 740 Canadian military veterans from a national, epidemiological survey, previously deployed on peacekeeping missions and administered the PTSD Checklist and Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D). Results: An eight-factor PTSD/depression model fit adequately. In analyses validating the structure, PTSD's dysphoria factor was more related to depressive affect than to several other PTSD and depression factors. Somatic problems were more related to dysphoria than to other PTSD factors. Limitations: Only military veterans were sampled, and without the use of structured diagnostic interviews. Conclusions: Results highlight a set of interrelationships that PTSD's dysphoria factor shares with specific depression factors, shedding light on the underlying psychopathology of PTSD that emphasizes dysphoric mood. © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Posttraumatic stress disorder Depression Confirmatory factor analysis Military veterans PTSD Checklist Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale 1. Introduction Studies demonstrate that major depressive disorder (MDD) and PTSD are highly comorbid and statistically correlated, despite some symptom overlap. .

Journal of Affective Disorders 133 (2011) 477–480Contents .docx

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En este artículo se expone un criterio de demarcación para las experiencias cercanas a la muerte conocido como “escala de Greyson”: se trata de un cuestionario formado por 16 preguntas agrupadas en cuatro bloques (componentes cognitivo, afectivo, paranormal y trascendental) en las que el entrevistado debe marcar la respuesta que más se acerque a la experiencia vivida (con un 0 si no la ha experimentado, un 1 si lo ha hecho de forma poco intensa, o un 2 si ha sido muy intensa). El análisis de los resultados sirve para evaluar si el sujeto vivió una ECM (alcanzado una puntuación mínima de 7 según los postulados de Greyson), permitiendo descartar un síndrome orgánico del cerebro o una respuesta no específica al estrés sufrido por el “miedo a morir”. Para más detalles visitar: http://www.afanporsaber.es/2014/01/experiencias-cercanas-a-la-muerte-i/

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Running head: FIRST RESPONDERS RISK FOR PTSD Do First Responders Have an Increased Risk of Developing Post Traumatic Stress Disorder? Student Name Do First Responders Have an Increased Risk of Developing Post Traumatic Stress Disorder? Introduction This topic is important to me, my husband was a first responder, many of his former crew members have suffered from PTSD, are currently suffering, and have even taken their own life since his line of duty death. I would like to research if mandatory counseling or if a critical stress debriefing after a traumatic incident could lessen the effects of PTSD however, there was not an ample amount of research. First responders are those that respond to any emergency event. They can be firefighters, paramedics, emergency medical technicians (EMTs), law enforcement officers, trauma nurses, etc. With first responder suicides on the rise and the number of first responders suffering from posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD) on the upswing (Kimbrel, Steffen, Meyer, Kruse, Knight, Zimering, and Gulliver, 2011) it seemed of importance to research if first responders do have a higher risk of development for PTSD. Proving that the risk of PTSD is higher in those occupations, could lead to programs for first responders to combat posttraumatic stress disorder. Literature Review: In the Chopko, Palmieri, and Adams 2018 path analysis there really was not a specific claim as to what they thought the outcome would be because they were trying to determine the relationships between traumatic experience, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and posttraumatic growth (PTG) for police officers. In this cross-sectional study, the authors conducted their research with a goal to better understand and help police officers experiencing PTSD (Chopko, Palmieri, & Adams 2018). The methods used were pretty straightforward, the first author Brian A. Chopko attended roll calls at three different police departments and training sessions at the state training center, he invited 364 officers to participate in the anonymous survey only 53% of those asked, accepted and returned their surveys (Chopko, Palmieri, & Adams 2018). The participants were of varying levels of ranks including patrol officers, detectives, administration, and other positions. The subjects were predominately white males and mostly married (Chopko, Palmieri, & Adams 2018, p.183). The subjects were given a self-assessed questionnaire to measure Posttraumatic Growth Inventory with 21 questions, 10 questions on behavioral growth and 11 for cognitive growth (Chopko et al, 2018). They responded to the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder checklist, and also the Critical Incident History Questionnaire that assesses 34 incidents that are commonly experienced by officers in the field 19 of those questions ask about direct involvement ( shooting at someone/being shot at) and 15 items about indirect involvement for example: encountering a ch.

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1 POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER IN SEPTEMBER 11TH SURVIVORS 9/11 Survivors with or without Injuries and the Severity of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder STUDENT NAME University of Massachusetts Boston Your N. Here Psychology 100 Fall, 2009 2 Abstract: This is a proposal for a study to see if the severity of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder increases in people who sustained an injury in the September 11th attacks compared to those who did not sustain an injury. The people who participate in this study will be survivors from the September 11th attacks on the World Trade Center and they will be asked if they had obtained an injury during September 11th or if they did not obtain any injuries, based on their answers they will be put into one of two groups; those with injuries and those without. Once the participants are put into their two groups they will be allowed to go about their daily routines. On the last friday of each month each group will be given a survey and asked questions to see how their symptoms of Post traumatic stress disorder are developing. This will be done over the course of three years. Previous research by Galea, Ahern, Resnick, Kilpatrick, Bucuvalas, Gold, & Vlahov (2002) show that some exposure to the attacks was a predictor to PTSD. One study looked at a sample of adults living in manhattan and asked them about the demographic characteristics and exposure to the the attacks and looked at how that had affected symptoms of PTSD. They concluded that exposure to the attacks were predictors of acute PTSD. This study hypothesizes that the survivors who have sustained injuries from the 9/11 attacks will develop PTSD more severely then those who did not sustain injuries. 3 9/11 Survivors with or without Injuries and the Severity of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder The purpose of this study is to see if the severity of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder is influenced by injuries sustained from the attacks or if injuries are not sustained. The hypothesis for this study is that people who had obtained injuries during the 9/11 attacks have PTSD on a more severe level then those who did not sustain injuries. The people who have injuries will have more severe uncontrollable re-experiences of the traumatic event, sleepiness, irritability, guilt, emotional numbing and depression. These symptoms will be measured and assessed for the severity. Prior studies have looked at the rescue and recovery workers and the experience of the workers in the World Trade Center building and compared it to refugees. In the article, “September 11th Survivors and the Refugee Model” by Myer, Moore, and Hughes (2003), they compare the experience of the people who worked the Trade Center and the experiences of refugees. Some of the people saw the first plane crash into the north tower of the WTC; whereas many saw the second plane hit ...

1 POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER IN SEPTEMBER 11TH SURVI.docx

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Hadi Alnasir Research Proposal Independent variable 1: Sex Independent variable 2: anxiety Dependent variable: Stress Question #1 My first independent variable (sex) and my dependent variable (stress) are related. Men and women tend to experience stress differently. Similarly, men and women react differently to stress. I expect women to score higher than men on the dependent variable. Women suffer more stress compared to men. A 2010 study discovered that women are more likely to experience an increase in stress levels as compared to men. Women are also more likely to report emotional and physical symptoms of stress compared to men (APA, 2012). The stress gap between men and women is because their stress response is different. Women have a different hormonal system that usually causes them to react more emotionally and become more fatigued. Similarly, women are exposed to more stress-related factors since they assume several roles in their daily life. Question #2 My second independent variable (anxiety) is related to my dependent variable (stress). Anxiety and stress can both cause severe physical and mental health issues, such as depression, muscle tension, substance abuse, personality disorders, and insomia (Powell & Enright, 2015). Both are emotions and normal responses that can become disruptive and overwhelming to day-to-day life. They can interfere with important aspects of life, such as work, relationships, responsibilities, and school. An increase in anxiety can increase stress levels. Research indicates that excessive anxiety can lead to stress-related symptoms such as difficulty concentrating, insomnia, irritability, muscle tension, and fatigue. Individuals can manage their anxiety and stress with relaxation techniques. This includes breathing exercises, yoga, physical activity, art therapy, meditation, and massage. References APA. (2012). 2010 Stress in America: Gender and Stress. Retrieved from: https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2010/gender-stress Powell, T., & Enright, S. (2015). Anxiety and stress management. Routledge. Running Head: GENDER AND STRESS AS PREDICTORS OF DEPRESSION Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression Zae’Cari Nelson California Baptist University Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 1 Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression More than 17 million adults in the United States experience the ill effects of depression, making it perhaps the most well-known mental illness in the U.S.A. Depression influences an expected one out of 15 adults. What's more, one out of six individuals will encounter depression in their life (What is Depression?). There are a mind-boggling number of elements that can prompt depressive symptoms in male and female individuals, one of which is held to be a rise in stress hormone disturban ...

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Lesson 3: Epi emiologyof Readings Predictors for the Daily Value of Bitcoins Required enta Health Frank, R.G., & Glied, S.A. (2009). Better but not Best: Recent trends in the well-being of the mentally ill. Health Affairs, 28(3), 637-648. Kessler, R.C., McGonagle, K.A .. Zhao, S., Nelson, C.B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., Wittchen, H.U., & Kendler, K.S. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives a/General Psychiatry 51,8-19. National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Mental Health Findings hl:-rJ. Pages 9-74 (skim). WHO World Mental Health Survey Consortium (2004). Prevalence, severity, and unmet need for treatment of mental disorders in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Journal a/the American Medical Association, 291(21), 2581-90. -r 1 shapeType75fBehindDocument1pWrapPolygonVertices8;8;(21498,0);(0,0);(0,21496);(11281,21496);(11281,13329);(6219,13329);(6219,10632);(21498,10632)posrelh0posrelv0pib shapeType75fBehindDocument1pWrapPolygonVertices8;6;(21500,0);(13467,0);(13467,7682);(0,7682);(0,21500);(21500,21500)posrelh0posrelv0pib Statistics are human faces with the tears wiped off. What is epidemiology and why is it important? 115.4 percent of American adults have a serious mental illness" (Kessler et ol., 1998) "Suicide is the 2nd leading cause of death among men 25-34 in the United States" (Centers for Disease Contro!,2014) "Serious mental illnesses cost society $193.2 billion in lost earnings per year" (Kessler et al., 2008) "Mental and behavioral disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and drug use, are the primary drivers of disability worldwide and caused over 40 million years of disability in 20- to 29- year-olds" (WHO Organization, 2004) Broadly speaking, epidemiology is the study of health and illness in human populations (Kleinbaum, Kupper & Morgenstern, 1982). More specifically, epidemiology can fall into two general areas. Descriptive epidemiological studies examine the incidence and prevalence of different health-related outcomes. • Incidence rate: The rate at which new cases occur in a population during a specific period. For example: 2 o Missouri has the 18'h highest rate of suicide in the nation among youth 10-2-1 year o Ids. In 2013, the rate was 18 higher than the national average (9.6-1 compared to 8.15 per 100,000 nationally). (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). • Prevalence rate: The proportion of a case that exists in a population at a point in time (usually expressed by a percentage). For example: o "5.4 of all American adults have a serious mental illness" (Kessler et al., 1998) Descriptive epidemiology also examines the occurrence of a disease or health outcome for different populations, such as age, gender, race, culture, economic status, education, occupation, etc. Descriptive epidemiological questions might inclu ...

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Final Reserch Paper

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Unit III PowerPoint Presentation Develop a PowerPoint Presentation about standards/code sets, and include a slide for each topic outlined below: · Slide 1: Introduction · Slide 2: ICD 9 Overview · Slide 3: ICD 10 Overview · Slide 4: ICD 9 and ICD 10 Compare and Contrast · Slide 5: Describe a SNOMED-CT Code · Slide 6: Describe a NDC · Slide 7: Describe a CDT · Slide 8: Discuss why code sets are used · Slide 9: Summary slide · Slide 10: Reference slide with at least one outside source, not counting the textbook MUST BE IN APA FORMAT If you need additional space for a slide, please use the notes section under the slide. Running head: CHILD SURVIVORS OF TRAUMATIC STRESS 1 CHILD SURVIVORS OF TRAUMATIC STRESS 2 Annotated Bibliography: Child who are Survivors of Traumatic Stress name school 2 July 2016 Annotated Bibliography: Child who are Survivors of Traumatic Stress Neugebauer, R., Fisher, P. W., Turner, J. B., Yamabe, S., Sarsfield, J. A., & Stehling-Ariza, T. (2009). Post-traumatic stress reactions among Rwandan children and adolescents in the early aftermath of genocide. International journal of epidemiology, 38(4), 1033-1045. The study surveyed Rwandese children aged between 8 and 19 to measure traumatic exposures using an inventory of possible war time encounters and post-traumatic stress reactions against a checklist of symptoms of PTSD. Those who meet the assessed PTSD diagnosis model are categorized as the cases of probable PTSD. In a sample of 1547, the participants were divided into two. The respondents were exposed to horrific experiences during the war including witnessing killings, rape, sexual mutilation, and in some cases hiding under the corpse. In the two groups of respondents, the study has determined that the rate of probable PTSD was 62% and 54% in the first and second samples respectively. Some of the individuals had the rate that is as high as 100%. Besides, the study found out that the rate of probable PTSD was higher in women than in men. Still, the result indicates that the test on age gave inconsistent. Wasserman, G. A., McReynolds, L. S., Lucas, C. P., Fisher, P., & Santos, L. (2002). The voice DISC-IV with incarcerated male youths: prevalence of disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(3), 314-321. The scholars intended to assess the rate of psychiatric disorder amongst the incarcerated youths. Also, they had the objective of examining the feasibility of applying a self administered and comprehensive structured psychiatric evaluation of the incarcerated juveniles. The youths, parents, and staff tolerated well the assessments with 92% of the approached juveniles agreeing. Above the expectable higher levels of substance use and disruptive disorders, the juveniles indicated high levels of mood and anxiety disorders, with above 3% of th ...

Unit III PowerPoint Presentation Develop a PowerPoint Presentat.docx

marilucorr

New estimates from the WHO find that some 22% of people in conflict areas around the world suffer from a mental health problem. Here’s more from the report: •By disease type: 13% of people experienced mild forms of depression, PTSD, and anxiety, while some 5% of people experienced severe forms of those disorders. •By age: Those over the age of 70 in conflict zones experienced the highest rates of depression and anxiety compared to the general population and those of other ages in conflict areas. •A takeaway: The global estimates are higher than previously thought, according to the authors, who stress the need for mental health care and intervention in conflict-affected countries.

More than 1 in 5 people in conflict areas experience mental health issues

Δρ. Γιώργος K. Κασάπης

The Expression of Depression in Asian Americans and European Americans Jean M. Kim and Steven Regeser López University of Southern California Past studies of the expression of depression in people of Asian descent have not considered whether observed ethnic differences in somatization or psychologization are a function of differences in the expression of the disorder or of group differences in the degree of depressive symptomatology. In the present study, we carried out �2 and Item Response Theory (IRT) analyses to examine ethnic differences in symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder in a nationally representative community sample of nonin- stitutionalized Asian Americans (n � 310) and European Americans (n � 1,763). IRT analyses were included because they can help discern whether there are differences in the expression of depressive symptoms, regardless of ethnic differences in the degree of depressive symptomatology. In general, although we found that Asian Americans have lower rates of depression than European Americans, when examining specific symptoms, there were more similarities (i.e., symptoms with no ethnic differences) than differences. An examination of the differences using both �2 and IRT analyses revealed that when there were differences, Asian Americans were less likely to endorse specific somatic and psychological symptoms than European Americans, even when matched in degree of depressive symptomatology. Together, these community-based findings indicate that depression among Asian Americans is more similar than different to that of European Americans. When differences do occur, they are not an artifact of the degree of depressive symptomatology but instead a true difference in the expression of the disorder, specifically a lesser likelihood of expressing specific somatic and psychological symptoms in Asian Americans compared with European Americans. Keywords: somatization, psychological symptoms, depression, Asian Americans, Item Response Theory It is a commonly held notion by anthropologists and psychologists that mood disorders are embedded in Western culture and may not apply as well to people of non-Western cultural backgrounds (e.g., Kleinman, 1988; Ryder et al., 2008). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013) states that “culture pro- vides interpretive frameworks that shape the experience and expression of the symptoms, signs, and behaviors that are criteria for diagnosis” (p. 14). In support of this, past research has demonstrated that participants of Asian background are more likely than participants of European background to express depression in somatic terms (Yen, Robins, & Lin, 2000; Yeung & Chang, 2002). Examples of somatic symptoms include fatigue, gastrointestinal problems, headache, and pain. There are many descriptions and theoretical discussions of somatization in people of Asian origin (Kleinman, 1982; Parker, Gladstone ...

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cherry686017

Carol Lin - SUPC PPT final

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Proposed Study Alexander Wenceslao, Briahna Pitts, Shaina Clasberry, Elbert Johnson, and Edith Zamora January 18, 2016 PSY/ 335 Dr. Nancy Lees Summary Suicide is a national risk to all ages, both attempted and completed suicides. Suicidal behavior is able to be influenced by many factors that are both internal and external. While external factors such as the media may pose as an influence, internal factors such as genetics or situational stress may pose as influences as well. A new study that the group would create to answer the remaining unanswered questions would be to incorporate as many individuals as possible with a mass survey. The individuals that the survey targets would be those who are currently experiencing suicide related situations or have experienced suicidal situations in the past. Also, this survey would be inclusive to ask questions about what the causes are for the individuals to contemplate suicide. The external factors outside of the targeted group, the survey would be the media and its effect on suicidal influence, benefactors of the suicidal community, and those related to the suicidal individuals. To ensure gaining questions to remaining unanswered questions, the survey can ask questions concerning the external factors. Our group would set out to answer the following research question: “Is it possible to prevent suicidal influences by taking preemptive measures?” The hypothesis would be if it is possible to prevent suicidal influences, then the preemptive measures could be implemented across all demographics—thus decreasing national suicide rates. Suicide risk in relation to socioeconomic, demographic, psychiatric, and familial factors: A national register-based study of all suicides in denmark Abstract. Suicide risk was addressed in relation to the joint effect of factors regarding family structure, socioeconomics, demographics, mental illness, and family history of suicide and mental illness, as well as gender differences in risk factors. Method: Data were drawn from four national Danish longitudinal registers. Subjects were all 21,169 persons who committed suicide in 1981-1997 and 423,128 live comparison subjects matched for age, gender, and calendar time of suicide by using a nested case-control design. The effect of risk factors was estimated through conditional logistic regression. The interaction of gender with the risk factors was examined by using the log likelihood ratio test. The population attributable risk was calculated. Results: Of the risk factors examined in the study, a history of hospitalization for psychiatric disorder was associated with the highest odds ratio and the highest attributable risk for suicide. Cohabiting or single marital status, unemployment, low income, retirement, disability, sickness-related absence from work, and a family history of suicide and/or psychiatric disorders were also significant risk factors for suicide. Moreover, these factors had different effects in male and fe ...

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amrit47

THE UNIVERSITY OF MEMPHIS POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER EARLY INTERVENTION FOR OUR SOLDIERS LESLIE JAYROE 4/25/2011 HPRO 7720 Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and Our Soldiers- Providing Earlier Intervention History There is a significant amount of information out there on post traumatic stress disorder and the military, and this is mostly due to the fact that our combat soldiers were the ones observed over time to determine the effects war has had on them. Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be thought of as a "young" diagnosis. PTSD has been around for centuries, but it was n~t until 1980 that it was made an official disorder. However, throughout history, people have recognized that exposure to combat situations can have an intensely negative impact on the people who are involved in these situations. (Mathew Tull, 2009) PTSD has previously been described ia-410J e ~s "combat fatigue," "shell shock," or "war neurosis," and is defined by the American Psychiatric Association as an anxiety (emotional) disorder which stems from a particular incident evoking significant stress. (Bentley, 2005) PTSD is not limited to combat soldiers but can also be found among survivors of the Holocaust, of car accidents, of sexual assaults, and of other traumatic experiences. War has always had a severe psychological effect on people, and with the war our country is currently in, more and more of our soldiers are suffering from PTSD. After a traumatic experience, the mind and the body are in shock, but as the victim makes sense of what happened and processes his/her emotions, healing takes place leading toward normal function once again. With PTSD, one remains in psychological shock. The memory of what happened and their feelings about it are disconnected. In order to move on, it's important to face and feel those memories and emotions. One effective approach is through counseling. (Mathew Tull, 2009) The symptoms of PTSD can occur all of a sudden, progressively, come and go over time, or appear out of nowhere. Sometimes, symptoms are triggered by something that reminds a 31 Page person of the original traumatic event, such as a noise, an image, certain words, or a smell. While everyone experiences PTSD differently, there are three main types of symptoms: (Bentley, 2005) 1. Re-experiencing the traumatic event 2. Avoiding reminders of the trauma 3. Increased anxiety and emotional arousal According to the Graffiti of War Project, in 2007, the number of diagnosed cases in the military jumped 50%. One in every five military personnel returning from Iraq and Afghanistan has PTSD, and 20% of the soldiers who've been deployed since 2001 have PTSD which is over 300,000. More troops are serving their second, third or fourth tours of duty, which dramatically increases stress according to medical heath experts. Also, extended tour lengths from 12 months to 15 months were done to prov ...

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