Sampling for Quantities & Qualitative Research Abeer AlNajjar.docx

Sampling for Quantities & Qualitative Research
Abeer AlNajjar
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Population
Target group (universe in texts)
Census (to study every member of a population)
because measuring every member of a population usually is not
feasible most researchers employ a Sample
Sample ( a subgroup of the population)
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Communication researchers are interested in a population (also
called a universe when applied to texts) of communicators, all
the people who posses a particular characteristic, or, in the case
of those who study texts, all the messages that share a
characteristic of interest.
The population of interest to researchers (often called the target
group) might be members of a business, communication majors
at a university, all students at a university, all people living in a
city, all eligible voters in a country.

Texts ( editorials published in a specific newspaper for a week,
or a large universe such as every editorial published In every
newspaper in the UAE, or even larger such as all persuasive
messages).
The best way to generalize to a population is to study every
member of a population (Census)
If every member is studied, we know, by definition, the
population’s response at the point in time the study was done
Sample
The results from the sample are then generalized back to (used
to represent) the population
Representative sample ( population validity)
Its similarity to its parent population
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The results from the sample are then generalized back to (used
to represent) the population). For such generalization to be
valid (demonstrate population validity), the sample must be
representative of its population. That is, it must accurately
approximate the population.
Types of sampling
Random sampling (probability sampling)
Involves selecting a sample in such a way that each person
in the population of interest has an equal chance of being

included
Nonrandom sampling (nonprobability sampling)
Is what ever researchers do instead of using procedures
that ensure that each member of a population has an equal
chance of being selected
Sampling error
Is a number that express how much the characteristic of a
sample probably differ from the characteristics of a population
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There are 2 different types of sampling procedures, and differ in
terms of how confident we are about the ability of the selected
sample to represent the population from which it is drawn
Random sampling (probability sampling)
Involves selecting a sample in such a way that each person
in the population of interest has an equal chance of being
included
By giving everyone an equal chance , random sampling
eliminates the danger of researchers biasing the selection
process because of their own opinions or desires. By
eliminating bias, random sampling provides the best assurance
that the same characteristics of the population exist in the
sample, and, therefore, that the sample represents the
population.
Nonrandom sampling: it sometimes is not possible to sample
randomly from a population because neither a complete
population list nor a list of clusters is possible
Is what ever researchers do instead of using procedures that
ensure that each member of a population has an equal chance of

being selected
Random error can be calculated for random samples, but not for
nonrandom sample
Random sampling methods-Quantitative Research
1)simple random sample
2) systematic sample
3) stratified sample
4) cluster sample
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There are four types of random samples
simple random sample: we assign each person a successive
number and then select from these numbers in such a way that
each number has an equal chance of being chosen. Numbers are
chosen until the desired sample size is obtained.
You should first have a full list of the population . If this is not
possible some other methods of random sampling should be
used
2) systematic sample (ordinal sample): chooses every nth person
from a complete list of a population after starting at a random
point
Systematic sample usually used in very large populations,
perhaps because they are easier to employ than a random sample
3) stratified sample: categorizes population with respect to a
characteristic a researcher considers to be important, called a
stratification variable, and then samples randomly from each
category. One popular way of stratifying a population is with
regard to demographic variables.
Each one of the proceeding types of random sampling
necessitate obtaining a complete list of the population of
interest and then randomly selecting members from it.

Burt obtaining a complete list is not always possible.
4) cluster sample
Randomly selecting units, or clusters (in this case, branch
offices) of the employee population.
Non-random sampling methods-Qualitative Research
convenience
volunteer
purposive
Seek individuals who meet criteria
quota
Network
Seek individuals who fit profile
Snowball sampling
Ask participants for referrals
7. Maximum variation sampling
Seek participants until data are redundant
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This applies when we are studying people with characteristics
for which no lists exist.
Researchers must be very careful in generalizing the results
they get from nonrandom sample to a population, and must
always disclose when they are doing so
Convenience: (accidental) respondents are selected non-
randomly on the basis of availability. Market researchers for
example often go to shopping malls and interview any available
people who shop there
The most popular type of convenience sample for researchers
who teach at universities is one composed of students.

The problem with convenience sample, as with all nonrandom
samples, is that there is no guarantee that the respondents
chosen are similar to the general population they are suppose to
represent
The results from convenience samples, therefore cannot be
applied with much confidence to a larger population.
Volunteer sample: respondents choose to participate in a study.
(depression and verbal aggressiveness in different marital
couple types
To recruit volunteers researchers often offer some reward to
those people who sign up for studies, especially to university
students
Purposive: (deliberate)
Quota: a nonrandom sample in which respondents are selected
nonrandom on the basis of their know proportion in a population
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Sampling Qualitative Data-Observation & Interviews
Impossible to observe every interaction of all interactants
Identify settings, persons, activities, events, and time periods
Distinguish between routine, special, and untoward events
Randomly selecting days and times increases the
representativeness of your observations
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Gaining Access

If you take on a covert role, your acceptance by others depends
on your ability to play the part
Consider a gatekeeper or sponsor
Will your observations provide the data you need?
Is the setting suitable?
Can you observe what you want to observe?
Will your observations be feasible?
Can you observe in such a way that you are not suspect to
others?
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Becoming Familiar
with People and Places
Draw a map of the interaction setting
Ask for a tour
Ask for relevant background
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Developing Trust
Trust must be addressed due to researcher’s intimate role with
participants
Must be addressed in first contact
Trust is person-specific
Trust is established over time
Trust can be destroyed with one event
Trust between researchers and participants is paramount
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Developing Rapport
Ask simple questions
Maintain positive conversation posture
Learn names and titles
Perform commitment acts
Locate key informants
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What Constitutes Data
in Qualitative Research?
The concept of data is broadly cast
ranges from public to private
More continuous than discrete
Field notes
Recordings
Written or digital documents
Photographs or maps
Artifacts

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Your Impact as a Researcher
Your sex, age, and ethnicity affect what you observe and how
you observe it
Report similarities and differences that you believe affected
data collection or interpretation
Research teams should be diverse
Males and females
Age
Ethnic, racial, or cultural groups
Reliability vs. Validity
reliability = consistency & stability
validity = accuracy
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Sampling for Content Analysis
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Selecting What to Code

Are the messages available or must they be created?
Narrow the data set for the elements of interest
May still need to sample elements
Messages may have structural characteristics that need to be
considering in sampling
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Interpreting Coding Results
Analysis must be relevant to hypothesis or research question
Frequencies
Differences
Trends
Patterns
Standards
Qualitative approaches & Mass Com.
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Qualitative vs. Quantitative Approaches
quantitative research
(natural sciences such as biology, chemistry, physics, geology)
is more concerned with questions about: how much? how
many? how often? to what extent?
investigating things which we could observe and measure in
some way
observations and measurements can be made objectively and
repeated by other researchers
qualitative research
(social sciences: psychology, sociology, anthropology)
is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin
with: why? how? in what way?
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A starting point in trying to understand the collection of
information for research purposes is that there are broadly two
approaches: quantitative research and qualitative research. Early
forms of research originated in the natural sciences such as
biology, chemistry, physics, geology etc. and was concerned
with investigating things which we could observe and measure
in some way. Such observations and measurements can be made
objectively and repeated by other researchers. This process is
referred to as “quantitative” research.
Much later, along came researchers working in the social
sciences: psychology, sociology, anthropology etc. They were
interested in studying human behaviour and the social world

inhabited by human beings. They found increasing difficulty in
trying to explain human behaviour in simply measurable terms.
Measurements tell us how often or how many people behave in
a certain way but they do not adequately answer the question
“why?”. Research which attempts to increase our understanding
of why things are the way they are in our social world and why
people act the ways they do is “qualitative” research.
Qualitative research
use descriptions of observations expressed in predominantly in
no numerical terms
examines social life in its natural environment.
is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomena.
help us to understand the world in which we live and why things
are the way they are
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Questions answered by Qualitative research
Why people behave the way they do
How opinions and attitudes are formed
How people are affected by the events that go on around them
How and why cultures have developed in the way they have
The differences between social groups

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Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to
questions which begin with: why? how? in what way?
Quantitative research, on the other hand, is more concerned
with questions about: how much? how many? how often? to
what extent?
Qualitative research is concerned with developing explanations
of social phenomena. That is to say, it aims to help us to
understand the world in which we live and why things are the
way they are. It is concerned with the social aspects of our
world and seeks to answer questions about:
Why people behave the way they do
How opinions and attitudes are formed
How people are affected by the events that go on around them
How and why cultures have developed in the way they have
The differences between social groups
Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers
Qualitative vs. quantitative
Qualitative Research
Subjective
Holistic
Phenomenological
Naturalist
Descriptive
Inductive
Quantitative Research

Objective
Reductionist
Scientific
Positivist
Experimental
Deductive
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A review of textbooks reveals a variety of terms used to
describe the nature of qualitative and quantitative research.
Some of the common terms are listed in Table 1.
Subjective
Holistic
Phenomenological
Anti positivist
Descriptive
Naturalistic
Inductive
Objective
Reductionism
Scientific
Positivist
Experimental
Contrived: fixed
Deductive
Characteristics
grounded in a philosophical position which is broadly
interpretivist
sensitive to the social context
involve understanding of complexity, detail and context

A preference for unstructured data collection
A concern with the 'micro' features of social life
A concern with meaning and function of social action.
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Mason (1996). Qualitative Research is:
grounded in a philosophical position which is broadly
interpretivist in a sense that is concerned with how the social
world is interpreted, understood, experienced or produced.
based on methods of data generation which are flexible and
sensitive to the social context in which data are produced.
based on methods of analysis and explanation building which
involve understanding of complexity, detail and context.
Hammersley (1990) offers a definition of ethnography which
shares properties in common with Bryman's definition of QR.
Use of everyday contexts rather than experimental conditions.
A range of sources of data collection (the main ones are
observation and informal conversations).
A preference for unstructured data collection (no prior
hypotheses, no prior definitions).
A concern with the 'micro' features of social life (a single
setting or group).
A concern with meaning and function of social action.
The assumption that quantification plays a subordinate role.
Hammersley and Atkinson (1993)
A preference for 'natural' settings as the primary source of data.
A fidelity to the phenomena under study - this requires a
cultural description of the meanings of phenomena to
participants.
The use of and inductivist methodology which avoids the

premature testing of hypotheses
Characteristics
time consuming
data is collected from smaller numbers of people than would
usually be the case in quantitative approaches
Benefits include richness of data and deeper insight into the
phenomena under study
raw qualitative data cannot be analysed statistically
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General Assumptions
of naturalistic enquiry= qualitative
develop context-specific statements
about the multiple, constructed realities of all the key
participants
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The positivist and naturalistic paradigms differ with respect to
how reality is conceived and studied.
Naturalist researchers believe that social events are defined and
shaped by the culture in which the events occur. Research itself
is a social enterprise in which the researcher’s expectations

influence what is inferred. Since culture influences everything
that occurs within it, the goal of naturalistic enquiry is to
develop context-specific statements ( as opposed to universal
generalizations) about the multiple, constructed realities of all
the key participants (including the researcher) involved in the
process being investigated
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Process
Reduction
Explanation
FIRST ORDER EXPLANATIONS
SECOND-ORDER EXPLANATIONS
Theory
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The analysis of data that indicate the meanings (other than
relative amounts) people have to something. Lindlof (1989)
identifies four interrelated principles that should be kept in
mind:
PEOCESS: Data analysis should be viewed as an ongoing
process that occurs throughout the course of a study
Unlike quantitative researchers, naturalist researchers don’t
collect all of their data and then make sense of them; they make
sense of data as they are acquired, and acquire more data after
making sense of earlier data
REDUCTION : the collected data must be reduced in some way.
Its just not possible to present the large amount of data
typically acquired from naturalist enquiry (e.g., observational
notes, interview transcripts, and documents) so the data must be

reduced to some manageable amount
EXPLANATION : the goal of the data analysis is to explain the
meaning of the data, but there are at least two types of
explanations; FIRST-ORDER EXPLANATIONS are research
participants’ explanations of their own attitudes and behaviors
and so forth
Whereas SECOND-ORDER EXPLANATION are explanations
of participants' attitudes, behaviors and other things as seen
through the researchers’ eyes.
SECOND-ORDER EXPLANATIONS attempt to explain the
patterning of the first order data
THEORY : some naturalist researchers analyze data for the
purpose of THEORY DEVELOPMENT. The extensive
examination of a single case can certainly test how and where a
theory
Investigative strategies in qualitative approach
two major investigate strategies are almost always used.;
direct observation of communication phenomena as they occur;
and in-depth interviews with cultural informants.
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Methods of collecting qualitative data
individual interviews: direct interaction with individuals on a

one to one basis or
focus groups
Observation
Historical analysis
Ethno-methodological research
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While naturalistic researchers employ many methods, two major
investigate strategies are almost always used.; direct
observation of communication phenomena as they occur;
and in-depth interviews with cultural informants.
Qualitative approaches to data collection usually involve direct
interaction with individuals on a one to one basis or in a group
setting. Data collection methods are time consuming and
consequently data is collected from smaller numbers of people
than would usually be the case in quantitative approaches such
as the questionnaire survey. The benefits of using these
approaches include richness of data and deeper insight into the
phenomena under study. Unlike quantitative data, raw
qualitative data cannot be analysed statistically. The data from
qualitative studies often derives from face-to-face interviews,
focus groups or observation and so tends to be time consuming
to collect. Samples are usually smaller than with quantitative
studies and are often locally based. Data analysis is also time
consuming and consequently expensive.
Interviews
Highly Structured:

same questions/
same way/like questionnaire
Semi structured
Series of open-ended questions
Discuss some topics in more detail
Room for elaboration
In depth
Aim of discussing a limited no. of topics
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Interviews can be highly structured, semi structured or
unstructured. Structured interviews consist of the interviewer
asking each respondent the same questions in the same way. A
tightly structured schedule of questions is used, very much like
a questionnaire. The questions may even be phrased in such a
way that a limited range of responses can be elicited. For
example: "Do you think that health services in this area are
excellent, good, average or poor? Bearing in mind the cost of
conducting a series of one to one interviews, the researcher
planning to use structured interviews should carefully consider
the information could be more efficiently collected using
questionnaires.
Semi structured interviews (sometimes referred to as focused
interviews) involve a series of open ended questions based on
the topic areas the researcher wants to cover. The open ended
nature of the question defines the topic under investigation but
provides opportunities for both interviewer and interviewee to
discuss some topics in more detail. If the interviewee has
difficulty answering a question or provides only a brief
response, the interviewer can use cues or prompts to encourage
the interviewee to consider the question further. In a semi

structured interview the interviewer also has the freedom to
probe the interviewee to elaborate on the original response or to
follow a line of inquiry introduced by the interviewee.
Unstructured interviews :"depth" or "in depth" interviews have
very little structure at all. The interviewer goes into the
interview with the aim of discussing a limited number of topics,
sometimes as few as one or two, and frames the questions on the
basis of the interviewee's previous response. Although only one
or two topics are discussed they are covered in great detail.
Unstructured interviews are exactly what they sound like -
interviews where the interviewer wants to find out about a
specific topic but has no structure or preconceived plan or
expectation as to how they will deal with the topic. The
difference with semi structured interviews is that in a semi
structured interview the interviewer has a set of broad questions
to ask and may also have some prompts to help the interviewee
but the interviewer has the time and space to respond to the
interviewees responses.
Handling qualitative research data
Interviewers have a choice of whether to take notes of responses
during the interview or to tape record the interview. The latter
is preferable for a number of reasons. The interviewer can
concentrate on listening and responding to the interviewee and
is not distracted by trying to write down what has been said.
The discussion flows because the interviewer does not have to
write down the response to one question before moving on to
the next. In note taking there is an increased risk of interviewer
bias because the interviewer is likely to make notes of the
comments which make immediate sense or are perceived as
being directly relevant or particularly interesting. Tape
recording ensures that the whole interview is captured and
provides complete data for analysis so cues that were missed the
first time can be recognised when listening to the recording.
Lastly, interviewees may feel inhibited if the interviewer
suddenly starts to scribble: they may wonder why what they

have just said was of particular interest.
Interviewing
Naturalist in-depth interviews
Understand particular social phenomena
developing “intimate familiarity
“understand the other person’s “inner view”,
comprehending the essence of an individual, his or her
emotions, motivations, and needs”
highly exploratory
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Naturalist in-depth interviews typically proceed inductively,
using an unstructured format consisting of open questions
Researchers use interview to:
Understand particular social phenomena by
developing “intimate familiarity” and a “detailed, dense
acquaintance-ship”.
They want to understand the other person’s “inner view”,
“comprehending the essence of an individual, his or her
emotions, motivations, and needs”
An in-depth interview is highly exploratory – researchers learn
gradually about participants and events, and modify the
interview strategy as they proceed.
Whom to interview
Nonrandom sample
Purposive sample
Key informants

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Naturalist researchers rely almost exclusively on
NONRANDON SAMPLES, meaning that the people interviewed
do not have an equal chance of being selected from the pool of
possible people.
Most select PURPOSIVE SAMPLE, intentionally choosing the
people, on the basis of theoretical and /or experientially
informed judgments, who are likely to be the most willing and
able to shed light on what the researcher is studying.
Many researchers begin with and continue to rely on KEY
INFORMANTS
Whom to interview
Nonrandom sample
Purposive sample
Key informants
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Naturalist researchers rely almost exclusively on
NONRANDON SAMPLES, meaning that the people interviewed
do not have an equal chance of being selected from the pool of

possible people.
Most select PURPOSIVE SAMPLE, intentionally choosing the
people, on the basis of theoretical and /or experientially
informed judgments, who are likely to be the most willing and
able to shed light on what the researcher is studying.
INFORMANTS
Key informants
“well-informed informants
“judge the reliability of potential interviewees
suggest people to talk with
make introductions
propose tactics for collecting information,
and react to collected data and tentative interpretations
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INFORMANTS, “well-informed informants” who can lighten a
researcher on what and whom he or she should know .
Key informants can “judge the reliability of potential
interviewees, suggest people to talk with, make introductions,
propose tactics for collecting information, and react to collected
data and tentative interpretations”
Focus group
6-10 people
Several focus groups for each project (min 3 groups)
Common characteristics

Specially convened
Use of info about feelings, perceptions & opinions
Researchers skills (facilitating, moderation, listening, observing
and analysing)
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Focus group- question types
Engagement questions
Exploration questions
Exit questions
Observation
It is a technique that can be used when data collected through
other means can be of limited value or is difficult to validate
Observation can also serve as a technique for verifying or
nullifying information provided in face to face encounters
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Not all qualitative data collection approaches require direct
interaction with people. It is a technique that can be used when
data collected through other means can be of limited value or is

difficult to validate. For example, in interviews participants
may be asked about how they behave in certain situations but
there is no guarantee that they actually do what they say they
do. Observing them in those situations is more reliable: it is
possible to see how they actually behave. Observation can also
serve as a technique for verifying or nullifying information
provided in face to face encounters. In some research
observation of people is not required but observation of the
environment. This can provide valuable background information
about the environment where a research project is being
undertaken. For example, an action research project involving
an institution may be enhanced by some description of the
physical features of the building. An ethnographic study of an
ethnic population may need information about how people dress
or about their non verbal communication. In a health needs
assessment or in a locality survey observations can provide
broad descriptions of the key features of the area. For example,
whether the area is inner city, urban or rural; the geographical
location; the size of the population. It can describe the key
components of the area: the main industries; type of housing.
The availability of services can be identified: number, type and
location of health care facilities such as hospitals and health
centres; leisure facilities; shopping centres.
Direct observation
What to observe
group of people
setting
communication act
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Naturalist researchers say you can observe a lot just by

watching. ‘naturalist researchers go into the filed to watch
people interacting as they ordinarily do while carrying out
everyday activities.
What to observe: observation of communication usually focus
on one of three interrelated aspects.
Sometimes the primary interest is the communication behavior
of a particular group of people. (researchers were interested in
the US high school adolescents (16-17) natural language
descriptions when talking about the kinds of everyday events
they experience. )
Some times the primary interest is understanding
communication among people within a particular setting.
(conducted research and voluntary work at .. A residential
facility for people with AIDS. Their research focused on how
communication practices help create and sustain community in
the compelling setting)
Sometimes the primary interest is a particular communication
act. (communication designed to embarrass another person and
how the other person responds to it)
Role of the Observer
Complete participant
Participant observer
Observer participant
Complete observer
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Complete participant: is fully involved in a social setting and

does not let people know they are being studied. The researcher
is or pretend to be a normal member of that milieu and does not
acknowledge being a researcher.
The complete participant role provides researchers with
firsthand knowledge about a social context while minimizing
researcher’s effects. , since the people don’t know they are
being studied.
Cons: a number pf potential problems with this role:
It may not be possible to become a complete participant ,
ethical problem
2. Participant observer: become involved as fully as possible in
a social situation where people know they are being studied.
Similar to the complete-participant role, researchers experience
the activities firsthand; however, they reveal their research
agenda-usually at the start of the project, but sometimes as it
progresses.
3. The observer –participant primarily observes and participate
only to a limited extent.. The researcher attempt to fit into the
social setting, perhaps by dressing similarly to the people being
studied and recording notes unobtrusively, but does not
participate actively in the activities.
4. The complete-observer: does not interact with the people
being observed. The researcher is concerned with faithfully
gathering observational data about people’s behavior without
influencing them in any way.
Length of observation
amount of time spent observing in the field
one-time performance
few observational periods
Sustained observations

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Naturalist researchers must decide on the amount of time spent
observing in the field . How much time is needed to collect the
data necessary for understanding and being able to write about
the communication phenomena of interest.
In some cases, when the phenomenon is a fleeting, one-time
performance, only that single observational period is necessary.
((critical ethnography of the 25the anniversary of the
assassination of President John Kennedy)
Some naturalist researchers can acquire sufficient data after
only a few observational periods.
Most naturalist researchers prefer sustained observations, which
means conducting longitudinal research.
Long term research is preferred because
it helps establish quality relationships between researchers and
research participant.
It is seen as producing more valid and reliable information.
During longer observational periods people become less self-
conscious about researchers' presence
and more likely to interact the way they usually do,
making the research less susceptible o the Hawthorne effect,
and thereby,
maximizing the internal validity of the findings.
Observation
Written descriptions
video recording
Photographs
Documentation

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Techniques for collecting data through observation
Written descriptions. The researcher can record observations of
people, a situation or an environment by making notes of what
has been observed. The limitations of this are similar to those of
trying to write down interview data as it occurs. First there is a
risk that the researcher will miss out on observations because he
is writing about the last thing he noticed. Secondly, the
researcher may find his attention focusing on a particular event
or feature because they appear particularly interesting or
relevant and miss things which are equally or more important
but their importance is not recognised or acknowledged at the
time.
Video recording. This frees the observer from the task of
making notes at the time and allows events to be reviewed time
after time. One disadvantage of video recording is that the
actors in the social world may be more conscious of the camera
that they would be of a person and that their behaviour will be
affected. They may even try to avoid being filmed. This
problem can be lessened by having the camera placed in a fixed
point rather than carried around. However, this means that only
events in the line of the camera can be recorded limiting the
range of possible observations.
Photographs and artefacts. Photographs are a good way of
collecting observable data of phenomena which can be captured
in a single shot or series of shots. For example, photographs of
buildings, neighbourhoods, dress and appearance. Artefacts are
objects which inform us about the phenomenon under study
because of their significance to the phenomena. For example,
memorabilia in historical research. Similarly, they may be

instruments or tools used by members of a sub group whether
this is a population sub group or a professional or patient group.
Documentation. A wide range of written materials can produce
qualitative information. They can be particularly useful in
trying to understand the philosophy of an organisation as may
be required in action research and case studies. They can
include policy documents, mission statements, annual reports,
minutes or meetings, codes of conduct, etc. Notice boards can
be a valuable source of data. Researchers who use this method
of data collection sometimes develop a reputations as a “lurker”
because of their tendency to lurk around notice boards! More
information about observation can be found in the Trent Focus
Resource Pack How to use observation in a research project.
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primestaffanaAUS Mails Don't touchPhotographs and
artefacts. Photographs are a good way of collecting observable
data of phenomena which can be captured in a single shot or
series of shots. For example, photographs of buildings,
neighbourhoods, dress and appearance. Artefacts are objects
which inform us about the phenomenon under study because of
their significance to the phenomena. For example, memorabilia
in historical research. Similarly, they may be instruments or
tools used by members of a sub group whether this is a
population sub group or a professional or patient group.
Documentation. A wide range of written materials can produce
qualitative information. They can be particularly useful in

trying to understand the philosophy of an organisation as may
be required in action research and case studies. They can
include policy documents, mission statements, annual reports,
minutes or meetings, codes of conduct, etc. Notice boards can
be a valuable source of data. Researchers who use this method
of data collection sometimes develop a reputations as a “lurker”
because of their tendency to lurk around notice boards! More
information about observation can be found in the Trent Focus
Resource Pack How to use observation in a research project.
What to observe
Stage (1) What is going on here?
Stage (2) Selectivity
Stage (3) Looking for instances that confirm or disconfirm their
earlier perceptions and interpretations.
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The TAGE of a research project influences how observations
are made. I the beginning, many investigators just observe
impressionistically, looking for any clues that help them
comprehend what is going on in the setting.
The general all purpose question that guides researchers'
observation during this early period" is What is going on here?
As researchers spend more time in a setting, they become more
selective of what to observe. And by the time they are ready to
leave the setting, they may only be looking for instances that
confirm or disconfirm their earlier perceptions and
interpretations.

Lidlof (1995) poses six general questions that guide the choices
among phenomena that communication researchers can observe.
How to decide what to observe
Who are the actors?
How is the scene set up?
How do initial interactions occur?
When and how do actors claim attention?
Where and when do principal actors ordinarily congregate and
interact?
What communicative events are significant?
26
Lidlof (1995) poses six general questions that guide the choices
among phenomena that communication researchers can observe.
Who are the actors?
How is the scene set up?
How do initial interactions occur?
When and how do actors claim attention?
Where and when do principal actors ordinarily congregate
(meet) and interact?
What communicative events are significant?
Recording observations
field notes
“record of what was meaningful…the goal is not to record
everything, but to carefully note those critical moments when
some meaning of the social action was revealed, however
imperfectly, to the researcher.”

27
Naturalist researchers keep track of their observations in the
form of field notes, written or audio recorded records of what
occurred. The
field notes
“record of what was meaningful…the goal is not to record
everything –that simply create chaos – but to carefully notes
those critical moments when some meaning of the social action
was revealed, however imperfectly, to the researcher.”
Field notes are either taken while observing events or as soon as
possible thereafter.
Abeer Najjar
Literature Review:
consult the literature so you do not invent the wheel
1
The Research Process: Getting Started
Researcher as a detective
Seeking answers to questions
Answer exists, but is unknown to you
If the answer is not known or available, conduct research to find
the answer
Research process depends on your abilities to search for and
track down information

Overview
What is a Literature Review?
Purpose- Why?
Research reports (types)
Research Article
Why write a review of the Literature?
Main tasks
Questions and comments
3
What is a Literature Review?
is a classification and evaluation of what accredited
scholars and researchers have written on a topic, organized
according to a guiding concept such as your research objective,
thesis, or the problem/issue you wish to address.
4
A review of the literature is a classification and evaluation of
what accredited scholars and researchers have written on a
topic, organized according to a guiding concept such as your
research objective, thesis, or the problem/issue you wish to
address.
Researchers don’t work in a vacuum, their research is built on
previous work done on a topic
Knowing what others have done and helps “reinventing the
wheel”

Purpose- Why?
“A literature review allows you to examine the research
question in greater detail by considering what others have said
about the topic, what they have shown in their studies, and how
they have studied the topic”
(Szuchman & Thomlinson, 2000, p. 41)
5
Reviewing previous research is bound to shape a new study in a
number of ways:
The purpose of one’s study may be affected: researchers start
with a tentative idea, but as they explore the relevant literature,
they discover not only what has been done, but also what has
not been done and what might be worth doing
Previous research is used to provide support for, or shape, the
formal research question or hypotheses posed
As researchers review relevant literature, they also look at how
those studies were conducted, gathering ideas for the design o
their own studies
They looked at how the variables of interest were defined and
measured
How the data were collected
And possible ways of analyzing the data
Research reports (types)
Secondary research report (textbook, book, mass media)
Primary research report (actual studies as reported for the first
time by the person (s) who conducted the research)
a scholarly article

a scholarly text (edited texts)
a conference paper
6
The search for previous research:
it begins by understanding the types of literature available and
where they can be found
Types of research reports:
Secondary research report (textbook, book, mass media): a
report of a research study by someone other than the person who
conducted the study or a later report by the person who
conducted the study that cites or uses the primary report that
has already appeared elsewhere
Most people’s exposure to secondary research reports comes
from the mass media –the newspapers and magazines they read,
the radio program or TV news
Researchers’
Primary research report (actual studies as reported for the first
time by the person (s) who conducted the research)
Scholarly journal: is the most important source for locating
primary research reports. Sometimes they publish book reviews
The main advantage of scholarly journal is that unlike some
other sources, the importance and accuracy of the reported
results have been reviewed by a panel of experts in the field
before being published
a scholarly article
a scholarly text (edited texts): here a scholar
collects original research studies about a particular topic and
puts them together in a book, typically with introduction that
frames the study and perhaps a concluding chapter that
comments on them.

a conference paper: a manuscript presented at a
scholarly conference
Research Article
Abstract (one paragraph)
Introduction (1-2 pages)
Literature review
A formal Research question or hypothesis (problem statement)
Methodology
Results
Discussion
References
7
Abstract: a summary of the important points in the article ,
typically one paragraph long. It includes the most important
information included in the article, the aims of the study,
methods used, prominent findings.
It can tell you whether the article is relevant and can be
included in your study or not and where to read in the article.
Introduction: gives an insight into the topic and why it is
important to be studied
It establishes the purpose and the significance of the study
Literature review meant to provide a coherent and
comprehensive understanding of the relevant research
previously done
Research question: explaining how the research question grew
out of what was learned from the literature review
Methods: explain exactly how the research was conducted
Results: what was found
WHY WRITE A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE?
Your objective is not to rack up points by listing as many
articles as possible; rather, you want to demonstrate your

intellectual ability to recognize relevant information, and to
synthesize and evaluate it according to the guiding concept you
have determined for yourself. Your reader not only wants to
know what literature exists, but also your informed evaluation
of the literature.
8
Combine: synthesize: produce
Main tasks
organize information and relate it to the thesis or research
question you are developing
synthesize results into a summary of what is and isn't known
identify controversy when it appears in the literature
develop questions for further research
9
A literature review is NOT just a summary, but a conceptually
organized synthesis of the results of your search. It must
organize information and relate it to the thesis or research
question you are developing
synthesize results into a summary of what is and isn't known
identify controversy when it appears in the literature
develop questions for further research
In the body, you should:
Group research studies and other types of literature (reviews,
theoretical articles, case studies, etc.) according to common
denominators such as qualitative versus quantitative
approaches, conclusions of authors, specific purpose or
objective, chronology, etc.
Summarize individual studies or articles with as much or as
little detail as each merits according to its comparative

importance in the literature, remembering that space (length)
denotes significance.
Provide the reader with strong "umbrella" sentences at
beginnings of paragraphs, "signposts" throughout, and brief "so
what" summary sentences at intermediate points in the review to
aid in understanding comparisons and analyses.
Identify key terms
Keyword search for each term in university catalog
Keyword search to combine terms
Examine resources for alternative keywords
Communication databases
Expanded Academic Index
Read articles and books
Can you answer your question?
Basic Library Search
Adjusting the Question
Adjust your question as you learn more
Incorporate information you find into your question
Did you uncover any relevant theories?
Do theories provide competing explanations?
Reading Scholarly Books & Articles
Evaluate the quality of the information
Get a historical overview
Start with a literature review
Identify primary ideas and conclusions
Track down others’ references
Summarize what you’ve found

The Role of Theory in Research
Generally, quantitative research starts with theory
Generally, qualitative research answers questions to develop
theory
Theories are . . .
Developed and tested incrementally over time
Never complete
Theory-Research Link
Theory
provides patterns for interpreting data
links one study to another
provides a framework for understanding how communication
concepts and issues are important
helps us interpret the meaning of research findings
Theory-Research Link
Scientific inquiry is a process of developing and testing theory
Process is not always linear
Meaningful inquiry drives theory or is theory-driven
Multiple studies used to develop or challenge theory
Continuing with
the Research Process
Repeat work of others if it is flawed or dated
Disagreement among scholars may suggest a study
Develop research studies to fill in the gaps
Develop research studies to answer the questions previous
research results raise
Questions and comments

?
17
Content & Textual analysis
Abeer AlNajjar
http://www.audiencedialogue.net/kya16b.html
http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=a67
9b843-01a3-4893-a56d-
2f08c97673ce%40sessionmgr4003&vid=1&hid=4201How Arab
is Al-Jazeera English?
1
Extracting meanings, and ideology
Both TA and CA focus on media messages
One for Quantitative and the other for a Qualitative approach
In both we examine
frequencies (the extent to which),
Meanings and ideology (TA)what does, how does etc.,

Berelson (1952) suggested five main purposes of content
analysis as follows:
To describe substance characteristics of message content;
To describe form characteristics of message content;
To make inferences to producers of content;
To make inferences to audiences of content;
To predict the effects of content on audiences.
CA Answers Questions like:
How often are older adults shown in TV commercials?
How much sex are children between 6-9 years are exposed to in
Television programming?
How often are female with color shown in beauty product
magazine Ads?
Content Analysis
A Research technique for the objective, systematic, and
quantitative description of the manifest content of
communication”
(Berelson, 1952)
“Content analysis refers to a general set of techniques useful for
analyzing and understanding collections of text.”
Eric T. Meyer

5
http://microsites.oii.ox.ac.uk/tidsr/kb/54/what-content-analysis
Modern content analysis was developed primarily as a way of
analyzing mass communication messages. Certainly its
evolution as a scientific method of inquiry was accelerated by
the propaganda analysis projects of Laswell and his colleagues
in 1940s.
Today’s researchers not only adhere to well-defined procedures,
but they pursue an expanded realm of questions
Spurred by the
Development of new conceptual frameworks
Advances in statistical tools,
Great variety of available communication content
And the use of computers
Content analysis now is one of the most frequently used
communication research methodologies
Centrality of content analysis in media research
Content analysis now is one of the most frequently used
communication research methodologies
Characteristics
Objective
Systematic
Generality

7
Systematic: to apply consistent criteria in a
rigorous/accurate/precise and careful way
Holsti adds the need for GENERALITY, arguing that simple
descriptions of content are of limited worth without
comparisons and relationships drawn from theoretical concerns
Challenges:
Going behind the manifest content and the challenge of
objectivity
The question of whether or not content analysis must be a
quantitative undertaking. Holsti (1969) argues that the “case for
content analysis based on exact counts of frequency is a
powerful one” because quantification increases the degree of
precision of one’s conclusions and permits a more accurate
description of covariance between elements
There is no easy resolution of this problem, the content analyst
must decide the extent to which the questions being asked
require quantitative or qualitative analysis or perhaps some
combination.
Procedures
Formulating a research question
Sampling
Defining categories
Outlining the coding process
Implementing the coding process
Determining reliability and validity
Analyzing the results of the coding process

8
Any application of content analytic procedure includes at least 7
steps:
Formulate the hypothesis or research questions to be answered
Select the sample to be analyzed
Define the categories to be applied
Outline the coding process and train the coders who will
implement it
Implement the coding process
Determine reliability and validity
Analyze the results of the coding process
How Arab is Al-Jazeera English? Comparative Study of Al-
Jazeera Arabic and Al-Jazeera English News Channels
This paper aims to identify the similarities and differences
between Al-Jazeera English (AJE) and Al-Jazeera Arabic (AJA)
according to their representation by country and region on the
one hand and story placement and story type on the other.
Particular attention is given to the Arab countries and the region
of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). The study
analyzes the content of the main evening (KSA time) news
bulletins of the two channels over a six-month period

(November 2006 – May 2007), in which 477 news stories are
examined. The newscasts of AJE and AJA are analyzed over two
rolling weeks and two constructed weeks.
Hypotheses
are generated from sound theoretical perspectives
are suggested by previous research in an area of interest to the
researcher
11
Ideally, hypotheses are generated from sound theoretical
perspectives or are suggested by previous research in an area of
interest to the researcher.
In content analysis , many research hypotheses simply suggest a
particular description of a message. For instance, a researcher
might hypothize that persuasive speeches contain substantial
amounts of emotional proof or that women occupy low status
positions in TV dramas
A good research formulation suggests a relationship between
communication variables. Examples of such hypotheses include:
Editorials in national newspapers are more favorable to
Democratic than to Republican candidates
The amount of violence in prime-time TV programming has
increased during the past 2 decades
Conversational patterns of mentally disturbed children differ
from patterns of normal children

Propaganda messages of Arab countries contain more appeals to
religious values than do propaganda messages of Soviet Union
Such hypotheses imply straightforward descriptions of
communication context from which researchers may draw
inferences ABOUT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN content
of a message and intentions of the source or effects on
receivers
RQ
To what extent do AJE and AJA resemble each other or are
sisters in their representation of countries and regions in their
news broadcasts, in particular, the frequency and duration of
news stories, topic preferences, and story placement?
Selecting the sample
Representative of the universe from which it comes
Of sufficient size to adequately represent that universe
13
The researcher must identify the universe of content to which
the hypotheses apply. Usually, the hypothesis suggests in
general terms what the universe of communication content
would be –prime-time television programming, newspaper
advertising, job interview dialogues, etc.
Representative of the universe from which it comes
Of sufficient size to adequately represent that universe

Random sample
Systematic sampling
Throughout the sampling process, the researcher must take care
to avoid any selection process that might introduce bias or
jeopardize representativeness.
Overall, probably the most frequent misuse of sampling in
content analysis is the use of what are sometimes called
“convenience” samples, which means that the sample consists of
materials readily available to the researcher
There is no clear-cut guideline for sample size selection in
content analysis. It has become generally established in content
analysis that larger is not necessarily better.
A total of 477 news stories were analyzed over six months. Of
this total, 237 news stories were broadcast by AJE and 240 by
AJA. The newscasts of the two news channels were video
recorded from November 15, 2006 to April 30, 2007. The
sample included two rolling weeks and two constructed weeks,
based on a strategy that ensured the maximum
representativeness of the broadcasts. A sampling strategy often
used for obtaining a representative sample of television
coverage is that one continuous week – Monday to Sunday – [is]
followed by a “rolling” or composite week, that is, Monday of
one week, Tuesday of the following week, Wednesday of the
following week, and so on. (Hansen, Cottle, Negrine, &
Newbold, 1998, p. 103)
The two rolling weeks began on the first day of AJE

broadcasting, November 15, 2006, and ended on November 28,
2006. The two constructed weeks included broadcasts from
January 4 to April 30, 2007. A KSA prime-time evening
newscast was recorded and coded from the two channels each
day. The constructed weeks includes newscasts provided by
AJA and AJE on the following dates: Thursday, January 4;
Friday, January 12; Saturday, January 20; Sunday, January 28;
Monday, February 5; Tuesday, February 13; Wednesday,
February 21; Thursday, March 1; Friday, March 9; Saturday,
March 17; Sunday, March 25; Monday, April 2; Tuesday, April
10; and Wednesday, April 18, 2007.
The newscasts were recorded live and then coded. A researcher
was trained to code the news stories according to a number of
predetermined dimensions, including country frequency, region
frequency, country duration, region duration, North/South
position, story placement, and story type. These aspects were
examined and differences and similarities identified between the
two channels. The unit of analysis was the individual news
story. Each story was coded first according to the news channel
and then the nation first mentioned in it. The frequency with
which individual nations were mentioned in the news stories
determined the score that they were given for content analysis.
News items were coded according to country frequency. The
subject of each news item was coded as the country first
mentioned in it. Other countries mentioned later in the same
news item were not counted. Therefore, for each news story,
only one country was counted.
News stories were coded for region frequency, covering six
regions. The regions were coded according to the coded country
and consisted of the following: the Middle East and North
Africa (MENA), Europe including Scandinavia, North America,
Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean. This scheme
was based on Horvit’s categorization, which defines the world’s
regions as follows: Western Europe, Asia, Eastern Europe, the
Middle East, the Americas, and Africa (Horvit, 2003). In this
study, North and Latin America are treated separately because

of
11
All-Najjar How Arab is Al Jazeera English? GMJ
the huge gap in the coverage of these regions by AJE and AJA,
for the United States is the most reported country globally (Wu,
Denis, 2000). Both Western and Eastern Europe are treated as
one entity here as they are physically. The Middle East and
North Africa were coded in one category because they include
all the Arab countries.
The duration of each news story was coded according to the
country, and its duration according to each region was
calculated. Each story was monitored for up to 10 minutes, even
if it ran for longer.
Concerning the story placement, each news story was coded
first according to the country and its placement in the newscast.
Each story was coded as Story 1, Story 2, and Story 3 up to
Story 10. Many of the newscasts consisted of fewer than ten
news stories, and none exceeded this number.
Each news item was coded according to the position of the
country that was the subject of the report. If the country was in
the northern half of the planet, then the story was coded as
North, and if it was in the southern half, then the story was
coded as South.
The story type was coded according to Hess’s six categories:
accident/disaster, combat, crime, culture, diplomacy, domestic
government, business, environment/science, human interest,
human rights, sports and others (Hess, 1996, p. 127).
The two rolling weeks began on the first day of AJE
broadcasting, November 15, 2006, and ended on November 28,
2006. The two constructed weeks included broadcasts from
January 4 to April 30, 2007. A KSA prime-time evening

newscast was recorded and coded from the two channels each
day. The constructed weeks includes newscasts provided by
AJA and AJE on the following dates: Thursday, January 4;
Friday, January 12; Saturday, January 20; Sunday, January 28;
Monday, February 5; Tuesday, February 13; Wednesday,
February 21; Thursday, March 1; Friday, March 9; Saturday,
March 17; Sunday, March 25; Monday, April 2; Tuesday, April
10; and Wednesday, April 18, 2007.
The newscasts were recorded live and then coded. A researcher
was trained to code the news stories according to a number of
predetermined dimensions, including country frequency, region
frequency, country duration, region duration, North/South
position, story placement, and story type. These aspects were
examined and differences and similarities identified between the
two channels. The unit of analysis was the individual news
story. Each story was coded first according to the news channel
and then the nation first mentioned in it. The frequency with
which individual nations were mentioned in the news stories
determined the score that they were given for content analysis.
News items were coded according to country frequency. The
subject of each news item was coded as the country first
mentioned in it. Other countries mentioned later in the same
news item were not counted. Therefore, for each news story,
only one country was counted.
News stories were coded for region frequency, covering six
regions. The regions were coded according to the coded country
and consisted of the following: the Middle East and North
Africa (MENA), Europe including Scandinavia, North America,
Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean. This scheme
was based on Horvit’s categorization, which defines the world’s
regions as follows: Western Europe, Asia, Eastern Europe, the
Middle East, the Americas, and Africa (Horvit, 2003). In this
study, North and Latin America are treated separately because
of
11
the huge gap in the coverage of these regions by AJE and AJA,

for the United States is the most reported country globally (Wu,
Denis, 2000). Both Western and Eastern Europe are treated as
one entity here as they are physically. The Middle East and
North Africa were coded in one category because they include
all the Arab countries.
The duration of each news story was coded according to the
country, and its duration according to each region was
calculated. Each story was monitored for up to 10 minutes, even
if it ran for longer.
Concerning the story placement, each news story was coded
first according to the country and its placement in the newscast.
Each story was coded as Story 1, Story 2, and Story 3 up to
Story 10. Many of the newscasts consisted of fewer than ten
news stories, and none exceeded this number.
Each news item was coded according to the position of the
country that was the subject of the report. If the country was in
the northern half of the planet, then the story was coded as
North, and if it was in the southern half, then the story was
coded as South.
The story type was coded according to Hess’s six categories:
accident/disaster, combat, crime, culture, diplomacy, domestic
government, business, environment/science, human interest,
human rights, sports and others (Hess, 1996, p. 127).
15
Defining categories
The crucial phase
2 basic types of categories
Substance
Form
16

The crucial phase: formulation of categories and their units of
analysis
The categories formulated must be carefully devised/ planned to
represent the concepts of embodied in the research hypothesis/
questions. Ideally categories should be
exhaustive/comprehensive and mutually exclusive
However, in practice , the necessity for exhaustive or exclusive
categories may not always be essential to answer the particular
research question
Berelson (1952) divides categories for content analysis into 2
basic types
Substance: what is said
And form categories: how it is said
The substance category is often a subject matter category in
which the reesearcher organizes the content according to the
specific nature of of the topics contained in the communication
For instance agenda-setting studies categorise the issue content
in the media into foreign policy, law and order, fiscal policy,
public welfare and civil rights
Categories that describe the form of communication might
differentiate among tv news, game shows , draamatic programs
and sports shows
Unit of analysis
For every category or set of categories a researcher must select
the appropriate unit of analysis
A unit of analysis may range from a word to phrase to an entire
item such as a book, a speech, a news story, a conversational
exchange , a film
17

Outlining coding and training coders
Coding instrument
Training of coders
18
Content analysis is designed to be systematic and objective, and
to this end the training of coders is usually outlined by
researchers
Usually a written coding instrument containing the categories to
be used in analyzing the communication is constructed for
coders
Coders may be asked to asses the content according to sets of
categories and subcategories or to respond to open ended
questions regarding their judgment of some aspect of a message
or to tally the appearance of some category
Even if coders are responding to open ended questions it is
better if they have a structured guide to assist in their open
ended answers
Whatever the type of coder used, the researcgher should provide
a structured training session for coders where procedures are
outlined and the coding instrument is explained
Implementing the coding process
Straightforward
coders work individually
use the codebook strictly
adhering to its definitions and not to their own definition of
categories

19
Implementing the coding process should be straight forward
Usually the researcher asks the coders to work individually and
To use the codebook strictly
Adhering to its definitions and not to their own definition of
categories
Some researchers believe that discussion between coders should
be reduce to the minimum
Assessing reliability and validity
Reliability of the coders and reliability of the categories
different coders should come up with the same data using the
same instrument
Validity is not easily assessed
We ask if the instrument used was measuring what it was
intended to measure
20
Reliability answers the question is to what extent data is
independent from of the measurement instrument (objectivity)
Typically the researchers ask if different coders would come up
with the same data using the same instrument
In validity assessment we need to compare the data to an
outside evidence
There is no problem if we really intend to describe a partciular
sample
Analyzing the results
Hypothesis

Research question
21
This step is dictated by the hypothesis and research question
For example a researcher might have posed a research question
about the occurrence of a particular persuasive strategy used by
a group leader
In this case frequencies are obtained to show the occurrence of
this and other phenomena
He might be interested in looking at the association between the
type of persuasive messages used and the leadership style of the
communicator.
Chapter 16
Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All
rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Quantitative and Qualitative Data Analysis
Chapter 16
rights reserved.
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WHY DO WE ANALYZE DATA
The purpose of analyzing data is to obtain usable and useful

information. The analysis, irrespective of whether the data is
qualitative or quantitative, may:
Describe and summarize the data Identify relationships between
variablesCompare variables Identify the difference between
variables Forecasts outcomes
Chapter 16
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Scales of measurement It is important to figure out what type of
analysis does a researcher use on her/his data and what the
pictorial presentation or data display most suitable for a certain
question.. The decision is based on the scale of measurement of
the data. These scales are nominal, ordinal and numerical
*
Chapter 16
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Nominal scale is where the data can be classified into a non-
numerical or named categories and the order in which these
categories can be written or asked is arbitrary
*
Chapter 16

rights reserved.
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Numerical scale Where numbers represent the possible response
categories There is a natural ranking of the categories Zero on
the scale has a meaning There is a quantifiable difference
within categories and between consecutive categories
*
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Ordinal scale Is where the data can be classified in non-
numerical or named categories An inherent order exists within
the response categories Ordinal scales in questions that call for
Ratings of quality (for example very good, good, fair, poor,
very poor)Agreement (Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree,
strongly disagree)
*
Chapter 16
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Common myths Complex analysis and big words impress
peopleAnalysis comes at the end after data is collected

Quantitative data is more accurate Data have their own
meaning
*
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Organizing the data Organize all forms/questionnaires in one
place Check for completeness and accuracyRemove the
incomplete forms; keep a record of your decisionsAssign a
unique identifier to each form /questionnaire
*
Chapter 16
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Enter your data By hand By computer Excel
(spreadsheet)Microsoft access (data management)Quantitative
analysis :SPSS (statistical software)(count: frequencies,
percentage, mean, mode, median, range, standard deviation,
variance, ranking, cross tabulation)
*

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Chapter 16
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Interpreting DataNumbers don’t speak for themselvesFor
example what does it mean that 25% of youth reported a change
in behavior .. Or 55% of participated rather the program a 5 or
65% rated it a 4. What do these numbers mean
Interpretation is the process of attaching meaning to data
*
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*
Chapter 16

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*
Chapter 16
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*
Chapter 16
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*
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QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

*
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*
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Analyzing Qualitative DataAnalysis Process of labeling and
break down raw dataBrings order, structure,
interpretationMessy, ambiguous, time consumingBegins after
first data collectionReflexive Inductive
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Choosing Analytic MethodSorting through a great deal of data
is difficultMultiple plausible interpretations will be presentThe
research question may have changedStill must remain true to
participants’ meanings

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*
Analytical MemosCaptures first impression and
reflectionsResearcher writes memos to him or herselfNot part of
the dataFirst attempt at analyzingSuggests avenues for
additional collection or analytical schemesResearcher’s not
participants’ evaluation
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*
Diagramming DataPlace data into tables, diagrams, or
graphsHelps see relationships
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Categorizing DataReduces data into manageable sizeCategory
Set of similar excerpts, examples, or themesExisting or
emergent Develop tentative labelsCategories and labels will
become
clearer over timeReturn to the research questions

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*
Thematic AnalysisTheme = conceptualization of interaction,
relationship, eventThree criteriaRecurrence: same thread of
meaning Repetition: explicit repetition of meanings
Forcefulness
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McGraw-Hill/Irwin
*
Process of InterpretationMaking sense or giving meaning to
patterns, themes, concepts, and propositionsTranslating
categories into meaningful wholeMetaphoric frameDramatistic
frameTheoretical frame
Chapter 16
rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
*
Evaluating InterpretationDo participant quotes illuminate the
analysis?At least 3 examplesCredibilityAre findings
believable?Are findings agreeable to participants?Triangulation

Chapter 16
rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
*
Chapter 16
rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
References
http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/matnat/ifi/INF4260/h10/underv
isningsmateriale/DataAnalysis.pdfhttps://people.uwec.edu/pierc
ech/ResearchMethods/Data%20interpretation%20methods/data%
20interpretation%20methods%20index.htm
*
Key sections of a research paper
Research Question: How do films & TV shows influence our
level of tolerance and respect towards cultural diversity and
ethnicity? Analyze at least 5 TV shows and films
Table of Contents
1. Abstract / Summary: Clear, logical summary of your paper,
typically not more than one paragraph

(05 %)
2. Literature Review 3-4 pages: Provides information on
existing knowledge related to the topic. It should be structured
3 subtitles thematically. The subtitles could be created from the
main research question itself using keywords. Each
subtitle/theme has to have reliable academic sources that speak
about the same point of the subtitle. From these sources, explain
the points of these authors. Start the paragraph by speaking
about the author and his/her ideas and findings. The second
subtitle has to have different academic sources and points than
the first, and so on for the third. Start writing from the broader
idea until the narrower.
(25 %)
3. Research Questions/Hypotheses Clearly defines the
purpose(s) of the research, what you expect to achieve, and key
questions to be answered. (10%)
4. Methodology section: (30 %)
a. Approach/Methods/ and instrument Describes the methods
you will use to accomplish your objectives [It will be a
qualitative approach, and the instrument will be textual
analysis].
b. Population of the study Describes how participants for the
research as well as texts will be recruited and the number of
participants and textual analysing you think is required in order
to adequately answer the research questions.
5. Findings present the findings of the study
(25 %)

6. Citation References APA Style
(05 %)
(at least 8 academic references including books and journal
articles)
Your research paper should not be less than 15 pages double
spaced, 12 Times New Roman. It will be due on Tuesday May
10th before midnight.
Refer to the slides to know more details about how to write a
Literature Review, methodology and other sections.
CHECK LIST:
Check list
Cover page: student name; ID; course number; semester; paper
title and RQ
organization (as in the guidelines of various sections)
Structure: all sections of the paper as indicated in this document
Subheadings in each section of the paper as instructed by the
professor
Third person style (do not use my, me, I, or we)
Rationale for each one of the decisions communicated in the
methodology section

Clarity pf each one of the sentences
Abstract
what is the topic about?
the exact research question.
why is it important to research this topic
brief description of methodology
summary of the most important findings
Literature Review:
at least three sections
clarity of terms and theory used- if any
subheading for each one of the sections
quotation marks whenever a direct quotation is used
proper citation for any direct quote or paraphrased idea
in-text citation includes the surname of the author and the year
of publishing in parenthesis.
In the case of direct quotation, you add the page number of the
text quoted
all cited books, papers, chapters etc., are included in a full

reference list at the end of the paper
simple and clear writing
conclude with gaps in the literature
Research Question:
clear research question
complete research question
specific & concise
Research Methodology:
three sections
Approach
Whether the paper adopts a quantitative or a qualitative research
approach
Rationale for the choice of approach
Any comment on how the research question is worded
Methodology & instrument

The method used to answer the research question
Rationale for the methodology choice- here you can briefly
speak about the qualities of the research method selected (for
instance survey research method)
Population & sampling strategy
What is the population of the study or the universe of texts?
Rationale for the population choice
Identify the sampling strategy
indicate whether it was a random or a non-random sampling
strategy
Name the sampling strategy used “stratified, convenient,
network, etc.,
Write a rational for the sampling strategy choice
Research instrument
describes how you will collect your data
Explanation of main questions
If any set of questions in the instruments were borrowed from
other researchers proper citations, rationale

Explanation of changes and rationale
The full research instrument is appendix one- make a reference
to it here
Findings & discussion:
Data collected to answer the RQ
Use simple language
The section has a structure
quantitative paper, findings should be structured based on
survey questions or content analysis questions
All tables must have captions in which you write the table
number and description, for instance, Table 1, media use, or
Table 2, Percentage of Investment of Arab Governments in
Satellite Television Channels.
For qualitative papers, findings should be discussion based
The findings should refer to all participants input from focus
groups, surveys or interviews as “one of the research
participants”, or “a participants from focus group one” or “one
of the interviewee”, etc.,,
If long should have sub-titles (a structure)
How the data collected answer your RQ
End with a clear conclusion

References
Proper in-text citation
At least 8 academic references
All in APA style
Alphabetically arranged
Font 11, Times New Roman
How do films & TV shows influence our level of tolerance and
respect towards cultural diversity and ethnicity? Analyze at
least 5 TV shows and films.
Do some research, and from scholarly and academic sources
related to your topic, create questions that you could later
answer regarding the texts you read and analyze, these
questions you create have to serve as textual analysis, meaning,
it allows you to question the texts you read.
After you create three questions, do some more research and
answer them below in the table and your answers have to be
medium answers, 5-6 sentences.
Once you finish the data of the table, write a detailed discussion
result about each answer for the film or TV show. You should
expand your answers more and speak about them in detail.
This paper should not be less than 4 pages. Please submit by
Wednesday Midnight and don’t forget to include an APA style
reference page of all the reliable sources you went through

-
Question 1
Question 2
Question 3
Film or show 1
Film or show 2
Film or show 3
Film or show 4
Film or show 5

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