Robotics and Embedded Systems(Ardrino) basic program,component list,Project (line following robot).....

1. Name: Ankan Naskar
College : Future Institute Of Engineering & Management
Traning Id: TECHLW16422
Robotics With Embedded Systems
Introduction: Arduino is an open-source platform used for building electronics
projects. Arduino consists of both a physical programmable circuit board (often
referred to as a microcontroller) and a piece of software,or IDE (Integrated
Development Environment) that runs on your computer, used to write and upload
computer code to the physical board.
The Arduino platform has become quite popular with people just starting out with
electronics, and for good reason. Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards,
the Arduino does not need a separate piece of hardware (called a programmer) in order
to load new code onto the board – you can simply use a USB cable. Additionally,the
Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it easier to learnto program.
Finally,Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks out the functions of the
micro-controller into a more accessible package
Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from everyday
objects to complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community of makers -
students, hobbyists, artists,programmers, and professionals - has gathered around
this open-source platform, their contributions have added up to an incredible amount
of accessible knowledge that can be of great helpto novices and experts alike.

2. Arduino was born at the Ivrea Interaction DesignInstitute as an easy tool for fast
prototyping, aimed at studentswithout a background in electronics and programming.
As soon as it reached a wider community,the Arduino board started changing to
adapt to new needs and challenges, differentiating its offer from simple 8-bit boards to
products for IoT applications, wearable,3D printing, and embedded environments. All
Arduino boards are completely open-source,empowering usersto build them
independently and eventually adapt them to their particular needs. The software, too,
is open-source,and it is growing through the contributions of users worldwide.
What's on the board?
There are many varieties of Arduino boards (explained on the next page) that can be
used for different purposes. Some boards look a bit different from the one below, but
most Arduinos have the majority of these componentsin common:
Power (USB / Barrel Jack) :
Every Arduino board needs a way to be connected to a power source . The Arduino
UNO can be powered from a USB cable coming from your computer or a wall power
supply (like this) that is terminated in a barrel jack. In the picture above the USB
connection is labeled (1) and the barrel jack is labeled (2).
The USB connection is also how you will load code onto your Arduino board. More on
how to program with Arduino can be found in our Installing and Programming
Arduino tutorial.

3. NOTE : Do NOT use a power supply greater than 20 Volts as you will overpower (and
thereby destroy) your Arduino. The recommended voltage for most Arduino models is
between 6 and 12 Volts.
Pins (5V, 3.3V, GND, Analog, Digital, PWM, AREF):
The pins on your Arduino are the places where you connect wiresto construct a
circuit (probably in conjuction with a breadboard and some wire. They usually have
black plastic ‘headers’ that allow you to just plug a wire right into the board. The
Arduino has several different kinds of pins, each of which is labeled on the board and
used for different functions.
 GND (3): Short for ‘Ground’. There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of
which can be used to ground your circuit.
 5V (4) & 3.3V (5): As you might guess, the 5V pin supplies 5 volts of power,
and the 3.3V pin supplies 3.3 volts of power. Most of the simple components
used with the Arduino run happily off of 5 or 3.3 volts.
 Analog (6): The area of pins under the ‘Analog In’ label (A0 through A5 on the
UNO) are Analog In pins. These pins can read the signal from an analog sensor
(like a temperature sensor) and convert it into a digital value that we can read.
 Digital (7): Across from the analog pins are the digital pins (0 through 13 on
the UNO). These pins can be used for both digital input (like telling if a button
is pushed) and digital output (like powering an LED).
 PWM (8): You may have noticed the tilde (~) next to some of the digital pins (3,
5, 6, 9, 10, and 11 on the UNO). These pins act as normal digital pins, but can
also be used for something called Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM). We have a
tutorial on PWM, but for now, think of these pins as being able to simulate
analog output (like fading an LED in and out).
 AREF (9): Stands for Analog Reference. Most of the time you can leave this pin
alone. It is sometimes used to set an external reference voltage (between0 and
5 Volts) as the upper limit for the analog input pins.
Reset Button :
Just like the original Nintendo, the Arduino has a reset button (10). Pushing it will
temporarilyconnect the reset pin to ground and restart any code that is loaded on the
Arduino. This can be very useful if your code doesn’t repeat, but you want to test it
multiple times. Unlike the original Nintendo however,blowing on the Arduino doesn’t
usually fix any problems.
Power LED Indicator :
Just beneath and to the right of the word “UNO” on your circuit board, there’s a tiny
LED next to the word ‘ON’ (11). This LED should light up whenever you plug your
Arduino into a power source. If this light doesn’t turn on, there’s a good chance
something is wrong. Time to re-check your circuit!

4. TX RX LEDs :
TX is short for transmit, RX is short for receive. These markings appear quite a bit in
electronics to indicate the pins responsible for serial communication.In our case,
there are two places on the Arduino UNO where TX and RX appear – once by digital
pins 0 and 1, and a second time next to the TX and RX indicator LEDs (12). These
LEDs will give us some nice visual indications whenever our Arduino is receiving or
transmitting data (like whenwe’re loading a new program onto the board).
Main IC :
The black thing with all the metal legs is an IC, or Integrated Circuit (13). Think of it
as the brains of our Arduino. The main IC on the Arduino is slightly different from
board type to board type, but is usually from the ATmega line of IC’s from the ATMEL
company. This can be important, as you may need to know the IC type (along with
your board type) before loading up a new program from the Arduino software.This
information can usually be found in writing on the top side of the IC. If you want to
know more about the difference between various IC’s, reading the datasheetsis often a
good idea.
Voltage Regulator :
The voltage regulator (14) is not actually something you can (or should) interact with
on the Arduino. But it is potentially useful to know that it is there and what it’s for.
The voltage regulator does exactly what it says – it controls the amount of voltage that
is let into the Arduino board. Think of it as a kind of gatekeeper; it will turn away an
extra voltage that might harm the circuit.Of course, it has its limits,so don’t hook up
your Arduino to anything greater than 20 volts.
Commonly Used Components In Ardrino System :
In Ardrino there few components are mainly used to build any kind of project.
Resistor: A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In
electroniccircuits, resistors are used to reduce current
flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active
elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other
uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate
many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as
part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or
as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have
resistances that only change slightly with temperature,
time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used
to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a
lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light,
humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Capacitor : A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores
electrical energy in an electric field.[1] The effect of a capacitor is known

5. as capacitance.While capacitance exists between any two electrical conductors of a
circuit in sufficiently close proximity, a capacitor is specifically designed to provide
and enhance this effect for a variety of practical applications by consideration of size,
shape, and positioning of closely spaced conductors, and the
intervening dielectric material. A capacitor was therefore historically first known as an
electric condenser.[2]
The physical form and construction of
practical capacitors vary widely and
many capacitor types are in common use.
Most capacitors contain at least
two electrical conductors often in the form
of metallic platesor surfaces separated by
a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a
foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, or
an electrolyte. The nonconducting
dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's
charge capacity. Materials commonly used
as dielectrics
include glass, ceramic, plastic
film, paper, mica, and oxide layers.
Capacitors are widely used as parts
of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy.
When two conductors experience a potential difference,for example, when a capacitor
is attached across a battery, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a
net positive charge to collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the
other plate. No current actually flows through the dielectric, instead, the effect is a
displacement of charges through the source circuit. If the condition is maintained
sufficiently long, this displacement current through the battery ceases. However, if a
time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, the source
experiences an ongoing current due to the charging and discharging cycles of the
capacitor.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them. The unit of capacitance in the International System
of Units (SI) is the farad (F), defined as one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Capacitance
values of typical capacitors for use in general electronics range from about 1 pF
(10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F).
Diode : A diode is a device which only
allows unidirectional flow of current if
operated within a rated specified voltage
level. A diode only blocks current in the
reverse direction while the reverse voltage
is within a limited range otherwise reverse
barrier breaks and the voltage at which
this breakdown occurs is called reverse
breakdown voltage. The diode acts as a
valve in the electronic and electrical
circuit. A P-N junction is the simplest form

6. of the diode which behaves as ideally short circuit when it is in forward biased and
behaves as ideally open circuit when it is in the reverse biased. Beside simple PN
junction diodes, there are different types of diodes although the fundamental
principles are more or less same. So a particular arrangement of diodes can convert
AC to pulsating DC, and hence, it is sometimes also called as a rectifier. The name
diode is derived from "di-ode" which means a device having two electrodes.
LED : LEDs are semiconductor diodes,
electronic devices that permit current to
flow in only one direction. The diode is
formed by bringing two slightly different
materials together to form a PN junction
(Figure 2). In a PN junction, the P side
contains excess positive charge ("holes,"
indicating the absence of electrons) while
the N side contains excess negative charge
(electrons).
When a forward voltage is applied to the
semiconducting element forming the PN
junction (heretofore referred to as the
junction), electrons move from the N area
toward the P area and holes move toward
the N area. Near the junction, the electrons
and holes combine. As this occurs, energy
is released in the form of light that is
emitted by the LED.
Relay : A relay is an electrically operated switch.
Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically
operate a switch, but other operating principles are
also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a
separate low-power signal,or where several circuits
must be controlled by one signal. The first relays
were used in long distance telegraph circuits as
amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from
one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit.
Relays were used extensively in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical
operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric
motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits
with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching.
Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating
coils are used to protect electrical circuitsfrom overload or faults; in modern electric
power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called
"protective relays".

7. Buzzer : A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling
device,[1] which may be mechanical, electromechanical,
or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers
include alarm devices, timers, and confirmation of user
input such as a mouse click or keystroke.
Infrared Sensor : An infrared sensor is an electronic device,
that emits in order to sense some aspects of the surroundings.
An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as
detects the motion.These types of sensors measures only
infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called as
a passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the
objects radiate some form of thermal radiations. These types of
radiationsare invisible to our eyes, that can be detected by an
infrared sensor.The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting
Diode) and the detector is simply an IR photodiode which is
sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted by
the IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, The
resistances and these output voltages, change in proportion to
the magnitude of the IR light received.
Push Button : A push-button (also
spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a
simple switch mechanism for controlling
some aspect of a machine or a process.
Buttons are typically made out of hard
material, usually plastic or metal.[1] The
surface is usually flat or shaped to
accommodate the human finger or hand,
so as to be easily depressed or pushed.
Buttons are most often biased switches,
although many un-biased buttons (due to
their physical nature) still require
a spring to returnto their un-pushed state.
Different people use different terms for the
"pushing" of the button, such
as press, depress, mash, hit, and punch.
LDR : A photoresistor (or light-
dependent,resistor, LDR,
or photocell) is a light-controlled
variable resistor. The resistance of
a photoresistor decreases with
increasing incident light intensity;
inotherwords,itexhibits photocondu
ctivity. A photoresistor can be
applied in light-sensitive detector
circuits, and light- and dark-
activated switching circuits.

8. A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a
photoresistor can have a resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the
light, a photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident
light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons enoughenergy to jump into the conduction band.
The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor can
substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors may
react substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic.An intrinsicsemiconductor
has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example,silicon.
In intrinsicdevices the only available electronsare in the valence band, and hence the
photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap.
Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state
energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to
jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are
sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by
phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction.
This is an example of an extrinsicsemiconductor.
ATMEGA 328P-PU : The Atmel 8-
bit AVR RISC-based microcontroller
combines 32 kB ISP flash memory with read-
while-write capabilities, 1 kB EEPROM,
2 kB SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines,
32 general purpose working registers, three
flexible timer/counters withcompare modes,
internal and external interrupts, serial
programmable USART, a byte-oriented 2-
wire serial interface, SPI serial port, 6-
channel 10-bit A/D converter (8-channels
in TQFP and QFN/MLF packages),programm
able watchdogtimer with internal oscillator,
and five software selectable power saving modes. The device operates between 1.8-5.5
volts. The device achieves throughput approaching 1 MIPS per MHz.

9. 7-segment Display : An LED or Light
Emitting Diode, is a solid state optical PN-
junction diode which emits light energy in
the form of “photons” when it is forward
biased by a voltage allowing current to
flow across its junction, and in Electronics
we call this process electroluminescence.
The actual colour of the visible light emitted by an LED, ranging from blue to red to
orange, is decided by the spectral wavelength of the emitted light which itself is
dependent upon the mixture of the various impurities added to the semiconductor
materials used to produce it.
7-segment Display
Light emitting diodes have many advantages over traditional bulbs and lamps, with
the main ones being their small size, long life, various colours, cheapness and are
readily available, as well as being easy to inte rface with various other electronic
components and digital circuits.
But the main advantage of light emitting diodes is that because of their small die size,
several of them can be connected together within one small and compact package
producing what is generally called a 7-segment Display.
The 7-segment display, also written as “seven segment display”, consists of seven
LEDs (hence its name) arranged in a rectangular fashion as shown. Each of the seven
LEDs is called a segment because when illuminated the segment forms part of a
numerical digit (both Decimal and Hex) to be displayed. An additional 8th LED is
sometimesused within the same package thus allowing the indication of a decimal
point, (DP) when two or more 7-segment displays are connected together to display
numbers greater than ten.
Related Products: Displays
Each one of the seven LEDs in the display is given a positional segment withone of its
connection pins being brought straight out of the rectangular plastic package. These

10. individually LED pins are labelled from a through to g representing each individual
LED. The other LED pins are connected together and wired to form a common pin.
So by forward biasing the appropriate pins of the LED segments in a particular order,
some segments will be light and others will be dark allowing the desired character
pattern of the number to be generated on the display. This then allows us to display
each of the ten decimal digits 0 through to 9 on the same 7-segment display.
The displays common pin is generally used to identify which type of 7-segment display
it is. As each LED has two connecting pins, one called the “Anode” and the other
called the “Cathode”, there are therefore two types of LED 7-segment display
called: Common Cathode (CC) and Common Anode (CA).
The difference between the two displays, as their name suggests, is that the common
cathode has all the cathodes of the 7-segments connected directly together and the
common anode has all the anodes of the 7-segments connected together and is
illuminated as follows.
1. The Common Cathode (CC) – In the common cathode display, all the cathode
connections of the LED segmentsare joined together to logic “0” or ground. The
individual segments are illuminated by application of a “HIGH”, or logic “1”
signal via a current limiting resistor to forward bias the individual Anode
terminals (a-g).
2. The Common Anode (CA) – In the common anode display, all the anode connections of
the LED segments are joined together to logic “1”. The individual segments are illuminated by
applying a ground, logic “0” or “LOW” signal via a suitable current limiting resistor to the
Cathode of the particular segment (a-g).
Common Anode 7-segment Display :
In general, common anode displays are more popular
as many logic circuitscan sink more current than
they can source. Also note that a common cathode
display is not a direct replacement in a circuit for a
common anode display and vice versa, as it is the same as

11. connecting the LEDs in reverse,and hence light emission will not take place.
Depending upon the decimal digit to be displayed, the particular set of LEDs is
forward biased. For instance, to display the numerical digit 0, we will need to light up
six of the LED segmentscorresponding to a, b, c, d, e and f. Then the various digits
from 0 through 9 can be displayed using a 7-segment display as shown.
7-Segment Display Segments for all Numbers:
Then for a 7-segment display, we can produce a truth table giving the individual
segments that need to be illuminated in order to produce the required decimal digit
from 0 through 9 as shown below.
7-segment Display Truth Table :

12. Driving a 7-segment Display : Although a 7-segment display can be thought of as
a single display, it is still seven individual LEDs within a single package and as such
these LEDs need protection from over current. LEDs produce light only when it is
forward biased with the amount of light emitted being proportional to the forward
current.
This means then that an LEDs light intensity increasesin an approximately linear
manner with an increasing current. So this forward current must be controlled and
limited to a safe value by an external resistor to prevent damage to the LED segments.
The forward voltage drop across a red LED segment is very low at about 2-to-2.2 volts,
(blue and white LEDs can be as high as 3.6 volts) so to illuminate correctly,the LED
segments should be connected to a voltage source in excessof this forward voltage
value with a seriesresistance used to limit the forward current to a desirable value.
Typically for a standard red coloured 7-segment display, eachLED segment can draw
about 15 mA to illuminated correctly, so on a 5 volt digital logic circuit,the value of
the current limiting resistor would be about 200Ω (5v – 2v)/15mA, or 220Ω to the
nearest higher preferred value.
So to understand how the segmentsof the display are connected to a 220Ω current
limiting resistor consider the circuit below.
Driving a 7-segment Display
In this example, the segments of a common anode display are illuminated using the
switches.If switch a is closed, current will flow through the “a” segment of the LED to
the current limiting resistor connected to pin a and to 0 volts, making the circuit.
Then only segment a will be illuminated. So a LOW condition (switch to ground) is
required to activate the LED segmentson this common anode display.
But suppose we want the decimal number “4” to illuminate on the display. Then
switches b, c, f and g would be closed to light the corresponding LED segments.
Likewise for a decimal number “7”, switches a, b, c would be closed. But illuminating
7-segment displays using individual switchesis not very practical.
7-segment Displays are usually driven by a special type of integrated circuit (IC)
commonly known as a 7-segment decoder/driver, such as the CMOS 4511. This 7-

13. segment display driver which is known as a Binary Coded Decimal or BCD to 7-
segment display decoder and driver, is able to illuminate both common anode or
common cathode displays. But there are many other single and dual display drivers
available such as the very popular TTL 7447.
This BCD-to-7 segment decoder/driver takesa four-bit BCD input labelled A, B,
C and D for the digits of the binary weighting of 1, 2, 4 and 8 respectively, has seven
outputs that will pass current through the appropriate segments to display the
decimal digit of the numeric LED display.
The digital outputs of the CD4511 are different from the usual CMOS outputs because
they can provide up to 25mA of current eachto drive the LED segmentsdirectly
allowing different coloured LED displays to be used and driven.
16x2-lcd-module :
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide
range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly
used in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven
segments and other multi segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical;
easily programmable; have no limitation of displaying special & even custom
characters (unlike in seven segments), animations and so on.
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In
this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers,
namely, Command and Data.
The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command
is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its
screen, settingthe cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the
data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be
displayed on the LCD. Click to learn more about internal structure of a LCD.

14. Pin Description :
VSS, VDD and VEE
Pin 1 (VSS) is a ground pin and it is certainly needed that this pin should be
grounded for LCD to work properly. VEE and VDD are given +5 vlots normally.
However VEE may have a potentiometer voltage divider network to get the contrast
adjusted. But VDD is always at +5V.
RS, R/W and E
These three pins are numbered 4, 5 and 6 as shown above. RS is used to make the
selection between data and command register. For RS=0, command register is selected
and for RS=1 data register is selected.
R/W gives you the choice between writing and reading. If set (R/W=1) reading is
enabled. R/W=0 when writing.
Enable pins is used by the LCD to latch information presented to its data pins. When
data is supplied to data pins, a high to low pulse must be applied to this pin in-order
for the LCD to latch in the data present at the data pins. It maybe noted here that the
pulse must be of minimum 450ns wide.
D0-D7
The 8-bit data pins, D0-D7, are used to send information to the LCD or read the
contents of LCD's internal register.
The following paragraph is taken and included from "Muhammad Ali Mazidi",
"To display letters and numbers, we send ASCII code for the letters A-Z, a-z and
numbers 0-9 while making RS=1. We also use RS=0 to check the busy flag bit to see if
the LCD is ready to receive information. The busy flag is D-7 and can be read when
R/W=1 and RS=0, as follows: if R/W=1, RS=0. When D7=1 (busy flag=1), the LCD is
busy taking care of internal operations and will not accept any new information. When
D7=0, the LCD is ready to receive new information. It is recommended to check the busy
flag before writing any data to LCD".
Projects :
1.Blinking an Led :
The LED blinking sketch is the first program that you should run to test
whether your Arduino board is working and is configured correctly. It is also
usually the very first programming exercise someone does when learning
to program a microcontroller. A light-emitting diode (LED) is a small elec-
tronic component that’s a bit like a light bulb, but is more efficient and
requires lower voltages to operate.
K indicates the cathode (negative), or shorter lead;A indicatesthe anode
(positive), or longer lead.

15. Component List :
Component Quantity
1.Ardrino (barebone) 1
2.Ardrino Software 1
3.Jamper 2
4.USB Plug 1
2. Fade an LED :
To create this circuit, you will need to combine the circuit you just built
with the pushbutton circuit shown in Figure 4-6.
If you’d like, you can simply build both circuitson different parts of the
breadboard; you have plenty of room. However, one of the advantages
of the breadboard (see Appendix A) is that there is a pair of rails running
horizontally acrossthe bottom and top. One is marked red (for positive)
and the other blue or black (for ground).
Component Quantity
1.Ardrino (barebone) 1
2.Ardrino Software 1
3.Jamper 2
4.USB Plug 1

16. Program Code :
3. LED CHASER :
This example makesuse of 6 LEDs connected to the pins 2 - 7 on the board
using 220 Ohm resistors. The first code example will make the LEDs blink in a
sequence, one by one using
only digitalWrite(pinNum,HIGH/LOW) and delay(time).The second example
shows how to use a for(;;) construction to perform the very same thing, but in
fewer lines. The third and last example concentratesin the visual effect of
turning the LEDs on/off in a more softer way.
Component Quantity
1.Ardrino (barebone) 1
2.Ardrino Software 1
3.Jamper 7
4.USB Plug 1
5.LED 6
6.Resistor 7

17. Programing Code :
Play Melody using buzzer :
This example makesuse of a Piezo Speaker in order to play melodies.We are taking
advantage of the processors capability to produde PWM signals in order to play music.
A Piezo is nothing but an electronic device that can both be used to play tones and to
detect tones.In our example we are plugging the Piezo on the pin number D5, that
supports the functionality of writing a PWM signal to it, and not just a plain HIGH or
LOW value.
The other thing to remember is that Piezos have polarity, commercial devicesare
usually having a red and a black wiresindicating how to plug it to the board. We
connect the black one to ground and the red one to the output. Sometimesit is
possible to acquire Piezo elementswithout a plastic housing, then they will just look
like a metallic disc.
Component Quantity
1.Ardrino (barebone) 1
4.Card board 1
5. Piezo Speaker 1

18. Program Code :
Working Of LDR using ardrino : A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a photo
resistor is a device whose resistivity is a function of the incident electromagnetic
radiation. Hence,they are light sensitive devices. They are also called as photo
conductors, photo conductive cells or simply photocells. They are made up of
semiconductor materials having high resistance. There are many different symbols
used to indicate a LDR, one of the most commonly used symbol is shown in the figure
below. The arrow indicates light falling on it.To get get the value from ldr we connect
the analog pin A5.
Component Quantity
1.Ardrino (barebone) 1
4.Input Card 1
5. Jamper 3

19. Program Code :
ARDUINO TEMPERATURE SENSOR LM35 :
LM35 is a precision IC temperature sensor with its output proportional to the
temperature (in oC). The sensor circuitry is sealed and therefore it is not subjected to
oxidation and other processes. With LM35, temperature can be measured more
accurately than with a thermistor. It also possess low self heating and does not cause
more than 0.1 oC temperature rise in still air. The operating temperature range is from
-55°C to 150°C. The output voltage variesby 10mV in response to every oC rise/fall in
ambient temperature, i.e., its scale factor is 0.01V/ oC.To measuring temparature we
connect analog pin A0 of barebone board to the input card pin LM35 and give 5v and
ground from barebone to input card.
Pin Description:
Pin No Function Name
1 Supply voltage; 5V (+35V to -2V) Vcc
2 Output voltage (+6V to -1V) Output
3 Ground (0V) Ground

20. Program code :
Bootloader :
Microcontrollers are usually programmed through a programmer unless you have a
piece of firmware in your microcontroller that allowsinstalling new firmware without
the need of an external programmer. This is called a bootloader.
Instructions :
To use your Arduino board to burn a bootloader onto an AVR,you need to follow a few simple steps.

21. 1. Open the ArduinoISP firmware (in Examples) to your Arduino board.
2. Note for Arduino 1.0: you need to make one small change to the ArduinoISP code. Find
the line in the heartbeat() function that says "delay(40);" and change it to "delay(20);".
3. Select the items in the Tools > Board and Serial Port menus that correspond to the
board you are using as the programmer (not the board being programmed).
4. Upload the ArduinoISP sketch.
5. Wire your Arduino board to the target as shown in the diagram below. (Note for the
Arduino Uno: you'll need to add a 10 uF capacitor betweenreset and ground.)
6. Select the item in the Tools > Board menu that corresponds to the board on which you
want to burn the bootloader(not the board that you're using as the programmer). See
the board descriptions on the environment page for details.
7. Select the Arduino as ISP in the Tools>Programmer menu.
8. Use the Burn Bootloader command.
Note :
This procedure works with the boards that have the SPI signals on the indicated pins.
For boards for which this isn't valid (32u4 boards like Leonardo) the SPI signals have
to be connected to the ISP connector whose pinout is reported below.
Circuit (targeting Arduino Uno, Duemilanove, or Diecimila) :

22. An Arduino board serving as an ISP to program the ATmega on another Arduino
board. On the Arduino Uno, you'll need to connect a 10 uF capacitor betweenreset
and ground (after uploading the ArduinoISP sketch). Note that you need access to the
reset pin on the target board, which isn't available on NG or older boards.
Circuit (targeting Arduino NG or older)
On NG or older boards, connect the reset wire to pin 1 of the Atmega chip on the
board, as shown above.
Circuit (targeting an AVR on a breadboard)
See the Arduino to Breadboard tutorial for
details.
Using an Arduino board to programan ATmega.
Because no external clock source is connected,
the ATmega must be configured to use its internal
clock.
Using an Arduino board to program
an ATmega, with external crystal and
associated capacitors (18 or 22
picofarads).

23. Uploading Code - Hard Way :
The hard way is for those people who want to use the command line.This method may
be more preferable if you are modifying and recompiling and don’t want to have to
keepupdating the IDE, but otherwise its pretty unnecessary.Again you will need to
get the programmer,and hook everything up. In this example we are using avrdude on
Windows.
There are two steps to this process. The first stepinvolves setting the fusebits.
Fusebits are the part of the AVR chip that determine things like whether you are using
an external crystal or whether you want brown out detection. The commands listed
below are for the Arduino Uno using an ATMega328, they will probably work on some
other similar boards such as the Duemilanove, but make sure you know what you are
doing before playing with fusebits (NOTE: these fusebits will not work on a 3.3V/8MHz
board). All the required fuse bits are listed in the boards.txt file for different boards,
but again, if you have a boards.txt file installed then just use the Easy Way.
Arduino as ISP: avrdude -P comport -b 19200 -c avrisp -p m328p -v -e -U
efuse:w:0x05:m -U hfuse:w:0xD6:m -U lfuse:w:0xFF:m
AVR Pocket Programmer:avrdude -b 19200 -c usbtiny -p m328p -v -e -U
efuse:w:0x05:m -U hfuse:w:0xD6:m -U lfuse:w:0xFF:m
The second stepis actually uploading the program.
Arduino as ISP: avrdude -P comport -b 19200 -c avrisp -p m328p -v -e -U
flash:w:hexfilename.hex -U lock:w:0x0F:m AVR Pocket Programmer: avrdude -b19200
-c usbtiny -p m328p -v -e -U flash:w:hexfilename.hex -U lock:w:0x0F:m
One last bit of info. As we stated earlier,a bootloader is essintially a .hex file. Thus,
you can use this method to upload and code you wish to your ICs.
16x2 Lcd program("Hello World!") :
The LiquidCrystal library allows you to control LCD displays that are compatible with
the Hitachi HD44780 driver. There are many of them out there, and you can usually
tell themby the 16-pin interface.This example sketch prints "Hello World!" to the LCD
and shows the time in seconds since the Arduino was reset.
The LCDs have a parallel interface,meaning that the microcontroller has to
manipulate several interface pins at once to control the display. The interface consists
of the following pins:
A register select (RS) pin that controls where in the LCD's memory you're writing data
to. You can select either the data register, which holds what goes on the screen, or an
instruction register,which is where the LCD's controller looks for instructions on what
to do next.
A Read/Write (R/W) pin that selects reading mode or writing mode
An Enable pin that enableswriting to the registers

24. 8 data pins (D0 -D7). The states of these pins (high or low) are the bits that you're
writing to a register when you write, or the values you're reading when you read.
There'salso a display constrast pin (Vo), power supply pins (+5V and Gnd) and LED
Backlight (Bklt+ and BKlt-) pins that you can use to power the LCD, control the
display contrast, and turn on and off the LED backlight, respectively.
The process of controlling the display involves putting the data that form the image of
what you want to display into the data registers,then putting instructionsin the
instruction register.The LiquidCrystal Library simplifies this for you so you don't need
to know the low-level instructions.
The Hitachi-compatible LCDs can be controlled in two modes: 4-bit or 8-bit. The 4-bit
mode requires seven I/O pins from the Arduino, while the 8-bit mode requires 11 pins.
For displaying text on the screen, you can do most everything in 4-bit mode, so
example shows how to control a 2x16 LCD in 4-bit mode.
Hardware Required
 Arduino or Genuino Board
 LCD Screen (compatible with Hitachi HD44780 driver)
 pin headers to solder to the LCD display pins
 10k ohm potentiometer
 220 ohm resistor
 hook-up wires
 breadboard
Circuit
Before wiringthe LCD screen to your Arduino or Genuino board we suggest to solder a
pin header stripto the 14 (or 16) pin count connector of the LCD screen, as you can
see in the image above.
To wire your LCD screen to your board, connect the following pins:
 LCD RS pin to digital pin 12
 LCD Enable pin to digital pin 11
 LCD D4 pin to digital pin 5
 LCD D5 pin to digital pin 4
 LCD D6 pin to digital pin 3
 LCD D7 pin to digital pin 2
Additionally,wire a 10k pot to +5V and GND, with it's wiper (output) to LCD screens
VO pin (pin3). A 220 ohm resistor is used to power the backlight of the display,
usually on pin 15 and 16 of the LCD connector

25. Schematic

26. Program Code :

27. Robotics is the interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science that
includes mechanical engineering,electrical engineering, computer
science, and others. Robotics deals withthe design,
construction,operation,anduseof robots,[1] as well as computer
systems for theircontrol, sensoryfeedback, and information
processing.
These technologies are used to develop machines that can
substitute for humans. Robots can be used in any situation and
for any purpose, but today many are used in dangerous
environments (including bomb detection and de-activation),
manufacturing processes, or where humans cannot survive.
Robots can take on any form but some are made to resemble
humans in appearance.This is said to helpin the acceptance of a
robot in certain replicative behaviors usuallyperformed by people.
Such robots attempt to replicate walking, lifting, speech,
cognition, and basically anything a human can do. Many of
today's robots are inspired by nature, contributing to the field
of bio-inspired robotics.
The concept of creating machinesthat can
operate autonomously dates back to classical times,but research into the
functionality and potential uses of robots did not grow substantially until the 20th
century.[2] Throughout history, it has been frequently assumed that robots will one day
be able to mimic human behavior and manage tasks in a human-like fashion. Today,
robotics is a rapidly growing field, as technological advances continue; researching,
designing, and building new robots serve various practical purposes,
whether domestically, commercially, or militarily. Many robots are built to do jobs that
are hazardous to people such as defusing bombs, finding survivors in unstable ruins,
and exploring mines and shipwrecks. Robotics is also used in STEM (Science,
Technology, Engineering,and Mathematics) as a teaching aid.
Types of robots by application :
Nowadays, robots do a lot of different tasks in many fields and the number of jobs
entrusted to robots is growing steadily. That's why in my opinion one of the best ways
how to divide robots into types is a division by their application.
There are:
*Industrial robots - Industrial robots are robots used in an industrial manufacturing
environment. Usually these are articulated arms specifically developed for such
applications as welding, material handling, painting and others.If we judge purely by
application this type could also include some automated guided vehiclesand other
robots.

28. *Domestic or household robots - Robots used at home. This type of robots includes
many quite different devices such as robotic vacuum cleaners, robotic pool cleaners,
sweepers, gutter cleaners and other robots that can do different chores. Also, some
surveillance and telepresence robots could be regarded as household robots if used in
that environment.
*Medical robots - Robots used in medicine and medical institutions.First and
foremost - surgery robots. Also, some automated guided vehiclesand maybe lifting
aides.
*Service robots - Robots that don’t fall into other types by usage. These could be
different data gathering robots, robots made to show off technologies, robots used for
research,etc.
*Military robots - Robots used in military. This type of robots includes bomb disposal
robots, different transportation robots, reconnaissance drones. Often robots initially
created for military purposes can be used in law enforcement, searchand rescue and
other related fields.
*Entertainment robots - These are robots used for entertainment.This is a very
broad category. It starts with toy robots such as robosapien or the running alarm
clock and ends with real heavyweights such as articulated robot arms used as motion
simulators.
*Space robots - I’d like to single out robots used in space as a separate type. This type
would include robots used on the International Space Station, Canadarm that was
used in Shuttles, as well as Mars rovers and other robots used in space.
*Hobby and competition robots - Robots that you create. Line followers, sumo-bots,
robots made just for fun and robots made for competition.
Now, as you can see there are examples that fit into more than one of these types. For
example, there can be a deep sea exploration robot that can gather some valuable
information that can be used for military purposes.
Also, I have seen that a division into two types is used, accordingly - industrial and
service robots. However, I can not see how a Mars exploration rover fits into one of
these general types. Therefore I have used "service robots" in a narrower manner. In
my version a term "service robots" servesas "others". This is basically a type where
robots that don't fit into other types should fall in.
Components :
Power source
At present, mostly (lead–acid) batteries are used as a power source. Many different types of
batteries can be used as a power source for robots. They range from lead–acid batteries,
which are safe and have relatively long shelf lives but are rather heavy compared to silver–
cadmium batteries that are much smaller in volume and are currently much more

29. expensive. Designing a battery-powered robot needs to take into account factors such as
safety, cycle lifetime and weight. Generators, often some type of internal combustion
engine, can also be used. However, such designs are often mechanically complex and need
a fuel, require heat dissipation and are relatively heavy. A tether connecting the robot to a
power supply would remove the power supply from the robot entirely. This has the
advantage of saving weight and space by moving all power generation and storage
components elsewhere. However, this design does come with the drawback of constantly
having a cable connected to the robot, which can be difficult to manage.[27] Potential power
sources could be:
 pneumatic (compressed gases)
 Solar power (using the sun's energy and converting it into electrical power)
 hydraulics (liquids)
 flywheel energy storage
 organic garbage (through anaerobic digestion)
 nuclear
Actuation :
A robotic leg poweredby air muscles
Actuators are the "muscles" of a robot, the parts which
convert stored energy into movement. By far the most popular
actuators are electric motors that rotate a wheel or gear, and
linear actuators that control industrial robots in factories. There
are some recent advances in alternative types of actuators,
powered by electricity, chemicals, or compressed air.
Electric motors:
Main article: Electric motor
The vast majority of robots use electric motors, often brushed and
brushless DC motors in portable robots or AC motors in
industrial robots and CNC machines. These motors are often
preferred in systems with lighter loads, and where the
predominant form of motion is rotational.
Linear actuators:
Main article: Linear actuator
Various types of linear actuators move in and out instead of by
spinning, and often have quicker direction changes, particularly
when very large forces are needed such as with industrial
robotics. They are typically powered by compressed air
(pneumatic actuator) or an oil (hydraulic actuator).
Series elastic actuators:
A flexure is designed as part of the motor actuator, to improve safety and provide robust
force control, energy efficiency, shock absorption (mechanical filtering) while reducing
excessive wear on the transmission and other mechanical components. The resultant
lower reflected inertia can improve safety when a robot is interacting with humans or

30. during collisions. It has been used in various robots, particularly advanced manufacturing
robots and[28] walking humanoid robots.[29]
Air muscles:
Main article: Pneumatic artificial muscles
Pneumatic artificial muscles, also known as air muscles, are special tubes that
expand(typically up to 40%) when air is forced inside them. They are used in some robot
applications.[30][31][32]
Muscle wire:
Main article: Shape memory alloy
Muscle wire, also known as shape memory alloy, Nitinol® or Flexinol® wire, is a material
which contracts (under 5%) when electricity is applied. They have been used for some
small robot applications.[33][34]
Electroactive polymers:
Main article: Electroactive polymers
EAPs or EPAMs are a new[when?] plastic material that can contract substantially (up to 380%
activation strain) from electricity, and have been used in facial muscles and arms of
humanoid robots,[35] and to enable new robots to float,[36] fly, swim or walk.[37]
Piezo motors:
Main article: Piezoelectric motor
Recent alternatives to DC motors are piezo motors or ultrasonic motors. These work on a
fundamentally different principle, whereby tiny piezoceramic elements, vibrating many
thousands of times per second, cause linear or rotary motion. There are different
mechanisms of operation; one type uses the vibration of the piezo elements to step the
motor in a circle or a straight line.Another type uses the piezo elements to cause a nut to
vibrate or to drive a screw. The advantages of these motors are nanometer resolution,
speed, and available force for their size. These motors are already available commercially,
and being used on some robots.
Sensing:
Main article: Robotic sensing
Sensors allow robots to receive information about a certain measurement of the
environment, or internal components. This is essential for robots to perform their tasks,
and act upon any changes in the environment to calculate the appropriate response. They
are used for various forms of measurements, to give the robots warnings about safety or
malfunctions, and to provide real-time information of the task it is performing.
Touch:
Main article: Tactile sensor
Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less tactile information than the human
hand. Recent research has developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the mechanical
properties and touch receptors of human fingertips.[43][44] The sensor array is constructed as
a rigid core surrounded by conductive fluid contained by an elastomeric skin. Electrodes
are mounted on the surface of the rigid core and are connected to an impedance -
measuring device within the core. When the artificial skin touches an object the fluid path

31. around the electrodes is deformed, producing impedance changes that map the forces
received from the object. The researchers expect that an important function of such
artificial fingertips will be adjusting robotic grip on held objects.
Scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a prosthetic hand in
2009, called SmartHand, which functions like a real one—allowing patients to write with
it, type on a keyboard, play piano and perform other fine movements. The prosthesis has
sensors which enable the patient to sense real feeling in its fingertips.[45]
Vision:]
Main article: Computer vision
See also: Vision processing unit
Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. As a scientific
discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that
extract information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as video
sequences and views from cameras.
In most practical computer vision applications, the computers are pre-programmed to
solve a particular task, but methods based on learning are now becoming increasingly
common.
Computer vision systems rely on image sensors which detect electromagnetic radiation
which is typically in the form of either visible light or infra-red light. The sensors are
designed using solid-state physics. The process by which light propagates and reflects off
surfaces is explained using optics. Sophisticated image sensors even require quantum
mechanics to provide a complete understanding of the image formation process. Robots
can also be equipped with multiple vision sensors to be better able to compute the sense of
depth in the environment. Like human eyes, robots' "eyes" must also be able to focus on a
particular area of interest, and also adjust to variations in light intensities.
There is a subfield within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic
the processing and behavior of biological system, at different levels of complexity. Also,
some of the learning-based methods developed within computer vision have their
background in biology.
Locomotion:
Main articles: Robot locomotion and Mobile robot
Rolling robots :
Segway in the Robot museum in Nagoya
For simplicity, most mobile robots have four wheels or a number
of continuous tracks. Some researchers have tried to create more
complex wheeled robots with only one or two wheels. These can
have certain advantages such as greater efficiency and reduced
parts, as well as allowing a robot to navigate in confined places
that a four-wheeled robot would not be able to.
Two-wheeled balancing robots
Balancing robots generally use a gyroscope to detect how much a

32. robot is falling and then drive the wheels proportionally in the same direction, to
counterbalance the fall at hundreds of times per second, based on the dynamics of
an inverted pendulum.[58] Many different balancing robots have been designed.[59] While
the Segway is not commonly thought of as a robot, it can be thought of as a component of
a robot, when used as such Segway refer to them as RMP (Robotic Mobility Platform). An
example of this use has been as NASA's Robonaut that has been mounted on a Segway.[60]
One-wheeled balancing robots
Main article: Self-balancing unicycle
A one-wheeled balancing robot is an extension of a two-wheeled balancing robot so that it
can move in any 2D direction using a round ball as its only wheel. Several one-wheeled
balancing robots have been designed recently, such as Carnegie Mellon University's
"Ballbot" that is the approximate height and width of a person, and Tohoku Gakuin
University's "BallIP".[61] Because of the long, thin shape and ability to maneuver in tight
spaces, they have the potential to function better than other robots in environments with
people.[62]
Spherical orb robots :
Main article: Spherical robot
Several attempts have been made in robots that are completely inside a spherical ball,
either by spinning a weight inside the ball,[63][64] or by rotating the outer shells of the
sphere.[65][66] These have also been referred to as an orb bot[67] or a ball bot.[68][69]
Six-wheeled robots :
Using six wheels instead of four wheels can give better traction or grip in outdoor terrain
such as on rocky dirt or grass.
Tracked robots :
TALON military robots usedby the UnitedStates Army
Tank tracks provide even more traction than a six-wheeled robot. Tracked wheels behave
as if they were made of hundreds of wheels, therefore are very common for outdoor and
military robots, where the robot must drive on very rough terrain. However, they are
difficult to use indoors such as on carpets and smooth floors. Examples include NASA's
Urban Robot "Urbie".[70]
Walking applied to robots :
Walking is a difficult and dynamic problem to solve. Several robots have been made which
can walk reliably on two legs, however, none have yet been made which are as robust as a
human. There has been much study on human inspired walking, such as AMBER lab

33. which was established in 2008 by the Mechanical Engineering Department at Texas A&M
University.[71] Many other robots have been built that walk on more than two legs, due to
these robots being significantly easier to construct.[72][73] Walking robots can be used for
uneven terrains, which would provide better mobility and energy efficiency than other
locomotion methods. Hybrids too have been proposed in movies such as I, Robot, where
they walk on two legs and switch to four (arms+legs) when going to a sprint. Typically,
robots on two legs can walk well on flat floors and can occasionally walk up stairs. None
can walk over rocky, uneven terrain. Some of the methods which have been tried are:
ZMP technique :
Main article: Zero moment point
The zero moment point (ZMP) is the algorithm used by robots such as Honda's ASIMO. The
robot's onboard computer tries to keep the total inertial forces (the combination
of Earth's gravity and the acceleration and deceleration of walking), exactly opposed by the
floor reaction force (the force of the floor pushing back on the robot's foot). In this way, the
two forces cancel out, leaving no moment (force causing the robot to rotate and fall
over).[74] However, this is not exactly how a human walks, and the difference is obvious to
human observers, some of whom have pointed out that ASIMO walks as if it needs
the lavatory.[75][76][77] ASIMO's walking algorithm is not static, and some dynamic balancing
is used (see below). However, it still requires a smooth surface to walk on.
Hopping :
Several robots, built in the 1980s by Marc Raibert at the MIT Leg Laboratory, successfully
demonstrated very dynamic walking. Initially, a robot with only one leg, and a very small
foot could stay upright simply by hopping. The movement is the same as that of a person
on a pogo stick. As the robot falls to one side, it would jump slightly in that direction, in
order to catch itself.[78] Soon, the algorithm was generalised to two and four legs. A bipedal
robot was demonstrated running and even performing somersaults.[79] A quadruped was
also demonstrated which could trot, run, pace, and bound.[80] For a full list of these robots,
see the MIT Leg Lab Robots page.[81]
Dynamic balancing (controlled falling) :
A more advanced way for a robot to walk is by using a dynamic balancing algorithm,
which is potentially more robust than the Zero Moment Point technique, as it constantly
monitors the robot's motion, and places the feet in order to maintain stability.[82] This
technique was recently demonstrated by Anybots' Dexter Robot,[83] which is so stable, it
can even jump.[84] Another example is the TU Delft Flame.
Passive dynamics :
Main article: Passive dynamics
Perhaps the most promising approach utilizes passive dynamics where the momentum of
swinging limbs is used for greater efficiency. It has been shown that totally unpowered
humanoid mechanisms can walk down a gentle slope, using only gravity to propel
themselves. Using this technique, a robot need only supply a small amount of motor power
to walk along a flat surface or a little more to walk up a hill. This technique promises to
make walking robots at least ten times more efficient than ZMP walkers, like ASIMO.[85][86]

34. Line follower Robot is a machine which follows a line, either a black line or white
line. Basically there are two types of line follower robots: one is black line follower
which follows black line and second is white line follower which follows white line.
Line follower actually senses the line and run over it.
Concepts of Line Follower
Concept of working of line follower is related to light. We use here the behavior of
light at black and white surface. Whenlight fall on a white surface it is almost full
reflected and in case of black surface light is completely absorbed. This behavior of
light is used in building a line follower robot.

35. In this arduino based line follower robot we have used IR Transmitters and IR
receivers also called photo diodes. They are used for sending and receiving light. IR
transmitsinfrared lights. When infrared rays falls on white surface, it’s reflected
back and catched by photodiodes which generates some voltage changes. When IR
light falls on a black surface, light is absorb by the black surface and no rays are
reflected back, thus photo diode does not receive any light or rays.
Here in this line follower robot when sensor senses white surface then arduino gets
1 as input and when senses black line arduino gets 0 as input.
Circuit Explanation
The whole line follower robot can be divided into 3 sections: sensor section,
control section and driver section.
Sensor section:
This section contains IR diodes, potentiometer, Comparator (Op-Amp) and LED’s.
Potentiometer is used for setting reference voltage at comparator’s one terminal
and IR sensors are used to sense the line and provide a change in voltage at
comparator’s second terminal. Then comparator compares both voltages and
generates a digital signal at output. Here in this line follower circuit we have
used two comparator for two sensors. LM 358 is used as comparator. LM358 has
inbuilt two low noise Op-amps.
Control Section:
Arduino Pro Mini is used for controlling whole the process of line follower robot.
The outputs of comparators are connected to digital pin number 2 and 3 of
arduino. Arduino read these signals and send commands to driver circuit to
drive line follower.
Driver section:
Driver section consists motor driver and two DC motors. Motor driver is used for
driving motors because arduino does not supply enough voltage and current to
motor. So we add a motor driver circuit to get enough voltage and current for
motor. Arduino sends commands to this motor driver and then it drive motors.
Working of Line Follower Robot using Arduino
Working of line follower is very interesting. Line follower robot senses black line
by using sensor and then sends the signal to arduino. Then arduino drives the
motor according to sensors' output.

36. Here in this project we are using two IR sensor modules namely left sensor and right
sensor. When both left and right sensor senses white then robot move forward.
If left sensor comes on black line then robot turn left side.

37. If right sensor sense black line then robot turn right side until both sensor comes at white
surface. When white surface comes robot starts moving on forward again.
If both sensors comes on black line, robot stops.

38. Required Components
Arduino
In our Project we have used a microcontroller to control whole the process of system
that is ARDUINO. Arduino is an open source hardware and very useful for project
developments. There are many types of arduino like Arduino UNO, arduino mega,
arduino pro mini, Lilypad etc. available in the market. Here we have used arduino
pro mini in this project as arduino pro mini is small and so breadboard compatible.
To burn program we have used FTDI burner.
L293D Motor Driver
L293D is a motor driver IC which has two channels for driving two motors. L293D
has two inbuilt Transistor Darlington pair for current amplification and a separate
power supply pin for giving external supply to motors.

39. IR Module:
IR Module is sensor circuit which consists IR LED/photodiode pair, potentiometer, LM358,
resistors and LED. IR sensor transmits Infrared light and photo diode receives the infrared
light.
Power Supply
I have added a voltage regulator to get 5 volt for arduino, comparator and motor driver.
And a 9 volt battery is used to power the circuit.
Required Component Quentity
1.Ardrino(Barebone) 1
2.Motor Driver 1
3.IR Module 2
4.Motor 2
5.Jamper Wire 7

40. Program Code :
Conclusion :
Today we find most robots working for people in industries,factories, warehouses, and
laboratories. Robots are useful in many ways. For instance,it boosts economy because
businesses need to be efficient to keepup with the industry competition.Therefore,
having robots helps business owners to be competitive, because robots can do jobs
better and faster than humans can, e.g. robot can built, assemble a car. Yet robots
cannot perform every job; today robots roles include assisting researchand industry.
Finally,as the technology improves, there will be new ways to use robots which will
bring new hopes and new potentials.