Based on literature review of motivation

1. Presentation by,
ANOOPA NARAYANAN

2. •Latin word -MOVERE’ – To move
Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological
or psychological deficiency or need that activates a
behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or
incentive.
(F.Luthens,1995)

3. NEEDS DRIVES INCENTIVES
BASIC MOTIVATION PROCESS

4. Need
Either physiological or psychological imbalance
Drives
•Set up to alleviate needs.
•Action oriented
•Providing an energizing thrust toward reaching an incentive
•Ex: Hunger/thirst drive
Incentive
Anything that alleviate & reduce a drive

5. MOTIVES
•Inferences from observation of behaviour
eg: a student works hard at all task that come along, we
might infer motive to achieve.
•Tools for explanation of behaviour
Eg: why are you to college?
Want to learn, need a college degree, desire for friends
etc
•Helps to predicts future behaviour
eg: if u know a person have a need for achievement you
can predict his behaviour
(C.T Morgan,1986)

6. Motives
Primary
General
Secondary
(F.Luthens,1995)

7. PRIMARY
(physiological/bio
logical/unlearned)
GENERAL
General/Stimulus
SECONDARY
Unlearned and
physiological
based
Unlearned and
non-physiological
based
Learned and
non-physiological
based
•Hunger
•Thirst
•Sleep
•Sex
•Avoidance of
pain
•Maternal concern
Curiosity
Manipulation
Activity
Affection
Power
Achievement
Affiliation
Security
Status

8. SIGNIFICANCE OF MOTIVATION
Performance = motivation X ability X situational
factors
More motivated the employees, more the performance
•Motivation is important in getting and retaining people.
Motivation tools act as the glue that links individuals to
organizational goals
•Employee motivation is directly linked to business profits,
and the more self-motivated your employees are, the more
differentiated and successful you will be as a business.

10. • Hierarchy of needs theory
• McGregor's Theory X and Theory
• Herzberg 2 factor theory
• Alderfer ERG needs
• McClelland's Need Theory
CONTENT
THEORIES
• Vroom Valence/expectancy
• Porter and Lawler Model
PROCESS
THEORIES
• Equity theory
• Goal setting theory
• Attribution theory
• Cognitive evaluation theory
• Reinforcement theory
CONTEMPORARY
THEORIES

11. CONTENT THEORIES
•Determine what it is that motivates people at work.
•Identify the needs/drives that people have and how
these needs are prioritized.
•Referred as ‘static’ because they incorporate only one
or few points in time and are either past- present time
oriented.

12. MASLOW HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY
(A.H. Maslow,1943)
•Proposed in the 1943 in paper "A
Theory of Human Motivation," by
Abraham Maslow
•There is a hierarchy of five needs—
physiological, safety, social, esteem,
and self-actualization; as each need
is substantially satisfied, the next
need becomes dominant.
•Satisfaction-progression principle

13. Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs
deprivation--domination--
gratification---activation

14. PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
Are the physical requirements for human survival.
If these requirements are not met, the human body cannot
function properly and will ultimately fail.
Examples: Hunger, Thirst, Sleep, Sex etc

15. SAFETY NEEDS
•With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual’s safety
needs take precedence and dominate behavior.
•These needs have to do with people’s yearning for a predictable
orderly world in which perceived unfairness and inconsistency are
under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare.
•Safety and security needs include:
• Personal security
• Financial security
• Health and well-being
• Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

16. SOCIAL NEEDS
•After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of
human needs are social and involve feelings of belonging. This
involves emotionally based relationships like friendship, intimacy,
family etc.
•Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether
it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture,
religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams etc.
•They need to love and be loved by others. In the absence of these
elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social
anxiety, and clinical depression.
•This need for belonging depending on the strength of the peer
pressure

17. ESTEEM NEEDS
•All humans have a need to be respected and to have
self-esteem and self respect.
•Focus on need to gain recognition and have an activity or
activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel
accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby.
•There can be two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a
higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the
need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The
higher one is the need for self-respect, the need for strength,
competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom.

18. SELF-ACTUALIZATION
•This level of need pertains to what a person’s full potential is and
realizing that potential.
•Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and
more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of
becoming.

19. CRITICISMS
•Maslow's theory is a theory of human behavior in general rather
than work behavior
•Little evidence has been found for the ranking of needs that
Maslow described, or even for the existence of a definite
hierarchy at all. (Wahba, M. A., & Bridwell, L. G.,1976)
•Needs are not independent to one another, they overlaps
(Kenrick, D.T., et.al,2010)

20. •The position and value of sex on the pyramid is in the
physiological needs category along with food and breathing; it
lists sex solely from an individualistic perspective, it forgets the
emotional, familial and evolutionary aspects of the
same. (Kenrick, D.T., et.al,2010)
•Belongingness is the driving force of human behavior, not a
third tier activity.
•Needs are interactive, dynamic system anchored in the
ability to make social connections.( Steve Denning, 2012)

21. McGregor's Theory X and
Theory Y
(McGregor, D. ,1960)
•Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed
his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 book 'The Human Side Of
Enterprise'.
•McGregor's ideas suggest that there are two fundamental
approaches to managing people.
•Theory X and Theory Y have to do with the perceptions
managers hold on their employees, not the way they generally
behave. It is attitude not attributes.

22. Theory X
It assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if
they can and that they inherently dislike work. As a result of
this, management believes that workers need to be closely
supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed.
Theory Y
In this theory, management assumes employees may be
ambitious and self-motivated and exercise self-control. It is
believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work
duties. According to them work is as natural as play.

23. •Assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they
can. Workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive
systems of control put in place.
• A hierarchical structure is needed, with narrow span of control at
each level, for effective management.
•Employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive
program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can.
•Think most employees are only out for themselves and their sole
interest in the job is to earn money.
•Tend to blame employees in most situations, without questioning the
systems, policy, or lack of training which could be the real cause of
failures.
•Tend to take a rather pessimistic view of their employees.
•Adopt a more authoritarian style based on the threat of punishment.
Theory X

24. •Assumes that employees are ambitious, self-motivated, anxious to
accept greater responsibility and exercise self-control, self-
direction, autonomy and empowerment.
•Believes that employees enjoy their work and believe that, given a
chance, employees have the desire to be creative at their work place
and become forward looking.
•There is a chance for greater productivity by giving employees the
freedom to perform to the best of their abilities, without being
bogged down by rules.
•Believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong
motivation in itself. A theory Y manager will try to remove the
barriers that prevent workers from fully actualizing themselves .
Theory Y

25. SIGNIFICANCE
•Theory remains a valid basic principle from which to develop
positive management style and techniques.
•Remains central to organizational development, and to
improving organizational culture.
•A simple reminder of the natural rules for managing people,
which under the pressure of day-to-day business are all too easily
forgotten.
•Theory X might be more suitable in some crisis situations but
less appropriate in more routine and formalized situations. In
India Theory X may still be useful at the lower levels of
organisation.

26. HERZBERG’S 2 FACTOR THEORY
(Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. 1959)
•It was developed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg
• Also known as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory and dual-
factor theory
•Extended the work of Maslow
•Study on about 200 accountants and engineers employed by firms
in and around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania using critical incident
method.

28. •Identified job satisfiers are related with job content
•Job dissatisfiers are related with job context
•2 Factors identified-
•Hygiene Factors- job dissatisfiers
•Motivators- job satisfiers

30. HYGIENE FACTORS
•Preventive and environmental in nature
•Roughly equivalent to Maslow's lower level needs
•It prevents dissatisfaction, but they do not lead to satisfaction
•It cannot motivate
MOTIVATERS
•Factors that motivate people on the job
•Roughly equivalent to Maslow's higher needs

31. Implications
•Many organisations try to motivate employees with hygiene
factors like salary.
•Hygiene factors are necessary for employee retention, but it
cannot motivate talented employees to stay with organisations
for long.

32. CRITICISMS
•The theory appears to be bound to the critical incident method
•The reliability of the data could have been negatively impacted by
ego-defensiveness on the part of the employee
•The value of the factors differed as a function of the occupational
level of the employee
•Ignores the part played by individual differences among
employees (Gaziel, 1986).

33. •It is more of an job satisfaction theory than of a motivation
theory
•Two factors are not actually distinct. Factors overlapped as
sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction
(K Aswathappa, 2005)

34. •Clayton Paul Alderfer, American psychologist further
developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs by categorizing the
hierarchy into his ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness and
Growth.
Identified three groups of core needs
•Existence needs
•Relatedness needs
•Growth needs
•Based on frustration-regression
principle
ALDERFER’S ERG
THEORY
(Alderfer, C. P. (1969)

35. •Existence needs- concerned with providing the basic material
existence requirements of humans. They include the items that
Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs.
•Relatedness needs – the desire people have for maintaining
important interpersonal relationships. These social and status
desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied.
He fit Maslow's interpersonal love and esteem needs into the
Relatedness category.
•Growth needs- an intrinsic desire for personal development. It
includes the self-actualization and self-esteem needs of Maslow’s
theory.

37. •Alderfer also proposed a regression theory to go along with the
ERG theory.
•He said that when needs in a higher category are not met then
individuals redouble the efforts invested in a lower category
need.
•For example if self-actualization or self-esteem is not met then
individuals will invest more effort in the relatedness category in
the hopes of achieving the higher need.
(Alderfer, Clayton P.,1969)

38. McClelland's Theory of needs
•Created by psychologist David McClelland, is a motivational
model that attempts to explain 3 motivational needs
•Need for achievement (n-Ach): The drive to excel, to
achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.
•Need for power (n-Pow): The need to make others behave in
a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.
•Need for affiliation (n-Aff): The desire for friendly and
close interpersonal relationships.
nAch
nPow
nAff

39. NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (n-Ach)
Unconscious concern for excellence in accomplishments
through individual efforts.
Those who have high need for achievement have a strong need
to be successful.
A worker who derives great satisfaction from meeting deadlines,
coming up with brilliant ideas, and planning his or her next
career move may be high in need for achievement.

40. Characteristics of high n-Ach people
•High internal locus of control, self confidence and high
energy traits
•Take responsibility for solving problems.
•They are goal oriented, set moderate, realistic, attainable
goals
•Perform well in non routine, challenging and
competitive situations
•Tend to achieve entrepreneurial-type positions

41. NEED FOR POWER (n-Pow)
Unconscious concern for influencing others and seeking
positions of authority.
Characteristics of high n-Pow people
•Wanting to influence or control over others
•Enjoying the competition in which they can win (they
don’t want to lose)
• Being willing to confront others
•Seeking positions of authority and status.
•Tend to be ambitious and lower need of affiliation

42. NEED FOR AFFILIATION (n-Aff)
Unconscious concern for developing, maintaining and
restoring close personal relationships.
Characteristics of high n-Aff people
•Seeking close relationships with others
•Wanting to be liked by others
• Enjoying lot of social activities
•Seeking to belong, they join groups and associations

43. PROCESS THEORIES
•Deal with the “process” of motivation, on how motivation
occurs
•Concerned with cognitive antecedents that go into
motivation or effort and with way they relate to one another.
•Major process theories
•Vroom’s expectancy theory
•Porter & Lawler model

44. VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY
(Vroom, V. H.,1964)
•Roots in the cognitive concepts of pioneering psychologists
Kurt Lewin and Edward Tolman.
•Victor Vroom proposed his expectancy theory as an alternative
to content models.
•The model is built around the concepts of valence,
instrumentality, and expectancy and is commonly called the VIE
theory.

46. MEANING OF VARIABLES
VALENCE: Strength of an individual’s preference for a particular
outcome. Other terms that are used include value, incentive, attitude
and expected utility
If valence is,
Positive: person prefer attaining the outcome
Zero: person is indifferent towards the outcome
Negative: person prefer not attaining the outcome
EXPECTANCY: probability that a particular efforts in obtaining a
desired first level outcome
INSTRUMENTALITY: Probability that a first level outcome in
obtaining a desired second level outcome, Eg: if a person is
motivated to attain a superior performance for getting a promotion.
Superior performance is seen as instrumental to achieve promotion

47. IMPLICATIONS
•Everyone has a unique combination of valences,
instrumentalities, and expectancies. Thus vroom theory
indicates only the conceptual determinants of motivation and
how they are related, not the what motivates the employees of
an organisation.
•Vroom model does not directly contribute much to the
techniques of motivating personnel in an organisation.
(F.Luthens,1995)

48. PORTER-LAWLER EXPECTANCY
MODEL
(Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. ,1968)
•Lyman W. Porter And Edward E. Lawler used Victor
Vroom’s expectancy theory as a foundation to develop their
expectancy model.
•Similar to Vroom’s theory, Porter and Lawler concluded
that an individual’s motivation to complete a task is
affected by the reward they expect to receive for
completing the task, but introduced additional aspects to
the expectancy theory.

50. •They start with the premise that effort does not equals
satisfaction or performance
•Effort does not lead to performance it is mediated by
•role perception
•Abilities and skills
•The rewards that follow and how these are perceived will lead
to satisfaction.
•Porter and Lawler categorized the reward as intrinsic and
extrinsic.
Intrinsic rewards are the positive feelings that the individual
experiences from completing the task e.g. satisfaction, sense
of achievement.
Extrinsic rewards are rewards emanating from outside the
individual such as bonus, commission and pay increases.

51. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF
WORK MOTIVATION
•Equity theory
•Goal setting theory
•Attribution theory
•Cognitive evaluation theory
•Reinforcement theory

52. EQUITY THEORY
(Adams, 1965)
•Developed in 1963 by John Stacey Adams,
workplace and behavioral psychologist, who asserted that
employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they
bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against
the perceived inputs and outcomes of others (Adams, 1965).
•It says that employees compare their job inputs and outcomes
with those of others and try to eliminate any inequities
•The belief is that people value fair treatment which causes them
to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the
relationships of their co-workers and the organization.

53. •An individual will consider that he is treated fairly if he
perceives the ratio of his inputs to his outcomes to be
equivalent to those around him.
•The idea is to have the rewards (outcomes) be directly related
with the quality and quantity of the employees contributions
(inputs). If both employees were perhaps rewarded the same, it
would help the workforce realize that the organization is fair,
observant, and appreciative.

54. •If an employee notices that another person is getting more
recognition and rewards for their contributions, even when
both have done the same amount and quality of work, it
would persuade the employee to be dissatisfied. This
dissatisfaction would result in the employee feeling
underappreciated and perhaps worthless.

55. Inputs
•Defined as each participant’s contributions to the relational
exchange and are viewed as entitling him/her to rewards or costs.
Examples: Time, Effort, Hard Work, Commitment, Ability etc
Outcomes
•Defined as the positive and negative consequences that an
individual perceives a participant has incurred as a consequence
of his/her relationship with another.
• When the ratio of inputs to outcomes is close, than the
employee should have much satisfaction with their job.
• Outputs can be both tangible and intangible.
Examples: Job security, Salary, Employee benefit, Recognition
etc

57. REACTIONS TO INEQUITY

58. GOAL SETTING THEORY
•In late 1960s, Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work
toward a goal are the major source of motivation.
•Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much
efforts will need to be expended.
•Specific and difficult goals when accepted will lead to higher
performance than do generalized and easy goals, and feedback
leads to higher performance
•If factors such as acceptance of the goals are held constant, the
more difficult the job, higher the level of performance.

59. Why are people motivated by difficult goals?
•Difficult goals direct our attention to the task at hand and away
from irrelevant distraction.
•Difficult goals energize and to work harder to attain them.
•When goals are difficult, people persist in trying to attain them
•Difficult goals lead to discovering strategies that help to
perform the job effectively.

60. Factors found to influence the goal-performance
relationship
•Feedback
•Goal commitment
•Task characteristics
•National culture
•Feedback
People do well when they get feedback on how well they are
progressing toward their goals, because feedback helps to
identify discrepancies between what they have done and what
they want to do.

61. Goal Commitment
Theory suppose that employees are committed to a goal. It is
likely to occur
•When goals are made public
•When employees has an internal locus of control
•When goals are self set rather than assigned
Task characteristics
Goals seem to have a substantial effect on performance when
tasks are simple rather than complex, well learned rather than
novel, and independent rather than interdependent
National culture
Theory is well adapted to countries such as US, and Canada
because its key components align reasonably well with North
American cultures.

62. REFERENCES
• Wahba, M. A., & Bridwell, L. G. (1976). Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need
hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15(2), 212–240. doi: 10.1016/0030-
5073(76)90038-6
•Steve Denning, What Maslow Missed, 2012,
http://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2012/03/29/what-maslow-missed/
•Kenrick, D.T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S.L., & Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the pyramid of needs:
Contemporary extensions built upon ancient foundations. Perspectives on Psychological Science, http://
www.csom.umn.edu/assets/144040.pdf
•A.H. Maslow, A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review 50(4) (1943):370-96
•Alderfer, Clayton P., An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Needs; Organizational Behaviour
and Human Performance, volume 4, issue 2, pp. 142–175, May 1969
•K Aswathappa, Human Resource And Personnel Management, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2005
•Gaziel, H. (1986). Correlates of job satisfaction: A study of the two factor theory in an educational
setting. The Journal of Psychology, 120(6), 613-626.
•Adams, J.S. 1965. Inequity in social exchange. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 62:335-343.

63. •Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human
needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 142–175.
•Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work. New
York: John Wiley and Sons;
•Herzberg, F. (1965). The motivation to work among Finnish supervisors. Personnel
Psychology, 18, 393–402.
•Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance.
Homewood, IL: Irwin; Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.