1. COURSE TITLE: INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS
COURSE CODE: BUS-303
PROGRAM: BBA
SUBMITTED TO:
MD.SAHADAT HOSSAIN
LECTURER IN MANAGEMENT
SCHOOL OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF BUSINESS & TECHNOLOGY (BUBT).
SUBMITTED BY:
GROUP NAME: INNOVATIVE
GROUP MEMBERS:
NAME ID SECTION INTAKE
ARIF HOSEN 10111101217 05 23ND
MOUIY AKTER 10111101185 05 23ND
10111101189 05 23ND
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF BUSINESS & TECHNOLOGY (BUBT).
COMMERCE COLLEGE ROAD, MIRPUR-02, DHAKA-1216.

2. HISTORY
DATABASES HAVE BEEN IN USE SINCE THE EARLIEST DAYS OF ELECTRONIC COMPUTING. UNLIKE MODERN SYSTEMS
WHICH CAN BE APPLIED TO WIDELY DIFFERENT DATABASES AND NEEDS, THE VAST MAJORITY OF OLDER SYSTEMS
WERE TIGHTLY LINKED TO THE CUSTOM DATABASES IN ORDER TO GAIN SPEED AT THE EXPENSE OF FLEXIBILITY.
ORIGINALLY DBMSS WERE FOUND ONLY IN LARGE ORGANIZATIONS WITH THE COMPUTER HARDWARE NEEDED TO
SUPPORT LARGE DATA SETS.
1960S NAVIGATIONAL DBMS
AS COMPUTERS GREW IN CAPABILITY, THIS TRADE-OFF BECAME INCREASINGLY UNNECESSARY AND A NUMBER OF
GENERAL-PURPOSE DATABASE SYSTEMS EMERGED; BY THE MID-1960S THERE WERE A NUMBER OF SUCH SYSTEMS
IN COMMERCIAL USE. INTEREST IN A STANDARD BEGAN TO GROW, AND CHARLES BACHMAN, AUTHOR OF ONE SUCH
PRODUCT, INTEGRATED DATA STORE (IDS), FOUNDED THE "DATABASE TASK GROUP" WITHIN CODASYL, THE GROUP
RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CREATION AND STANDARDIZATION OF COBOL. IN 1971 THEY DELIVERED THEIR STANDARD,
WHICH GENERALLY BECAME KNOWN AS THE "CODASYL APPROACH", AND SOON THERE WERE A NUMBER OF
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS BASED ON IT AVAILABLE.
THE CODASYL APPROACH WAS BASED ON THE "MANUAL" NAVIGATION OF A LINKED DATA SET WHICH WAS FORMED
INTO A LARGE NETWORK. SIMPLE QUERIES LIKE "FIND ALL THE PEOPLE IN INDIA" REQUIRED THE PROGRAM TO WALK
THE ENTIRE DATA SET AND COLLECT THE MATCHING RESULTS. THERE WAS, ESSENTIALLY, NO CONCEPT OF "FIND"
OR "SEARCH". THIS MIGHT SOUND LIKE A SERIOUS LIMITATION TODAY, BUT IN AN ERA WHEN THE DATA WAS MOST
OFTEN STORED ON MAGNETIC TAPE SUCH OPERATIONS WERE TOO EXPENSIVE TO CONTEMPLATE ANYWAY.
IBM ALSO HAD THEIR OWN DBMS SYSTEM IN 1968, KNOWN AS IMS. IMS WAS A DEVELOPMENT OF SOFTWARE
WRITTEN FOR THE APOLLO PROGRAM ON THE SYSTEM/360. IMS WAS GENERALLY SIMILAR IN CONCEPT TO CODASYL,
BUT USED A STRICT HIERARCHY FOR ITS MODEL OF DATA NAVIGATION INSTEAD OF CODASYL'S NETWORK MODEL.
BOTH CONCEPTS LATER BECAME KNOWN AS NAVIGATIONAL DATABASES DUE TO THE WAY DATA WAS ACCESSED,
AND BACHMAN'S 1973 TURING AWARD AWARD PRESENTATION WAS THE PROGRAMMER AS NAVIGATOR. IMS IS
CLASSIFIED AS A HIERARCHICAL DATABASE. IDS AND IDMS, BOTH CODASYL DATABASES, AS WELL AS CINCOMS
TOTAL DATABASE ARE CLASSIFIED AS NETWORK DATABASES.
1970S RELATIONAL DBMS
EDGAR CODD WORKED AT IBM IN SAN JOSE, CALIFORNIA, IN ONE OF THEIR OFFSHOOT OFFICES THAT WAS
PRIMARILY INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HARD DISK SYSTEMS. HE WAS UNHAPPY WITH THE NAVIGATIONAL
MODEL OF THE CODASYL APPROACH, NOTABLY THE LACK OF A "SEARCH" FACILITY WHICH WAS BECOMING
INCREASINGLY USEFUL. IN 1970, HE WROTE A NUMBER OF PAPERS THAT OUTLINED A NEW APPROACH TO DATABASE
CONSTRUCTION THAT EVENTUALLY CULMINATED IN THE GROUNDBREAKING A RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA FOR
LARGE SHARED DATA BANKS.

3. IN THIS PAPER, HE DESCRIBED A NEW SYSTEM FOR STORING AND WORKING WITH LARGE DATABASES. INSTEAD OF
RECORDS BEING STORED IN SOME SORT OF LINKED LIST OF FREE-FORM RECORDS AS IN CODASYL, CODD'S IDEA
WAS TO USE A "TABLE" OF FIXED-LENGTH RECORDS. A LINKED-LIST SYSTEM WOULD BE VERY INEFFICIENT WHEN
STORING "SPARSE" DATABASES WHERE SOME OF THE DATA FOR ANY ONE RECORD COULD BE LEFT EMPTY. THE
RELATIONAL MODEL SOLVED THIS BY SPLITTING THE DATA INTO A SERIES OF NORMALIZED TABLES, WITH OPTIONAL
ELEMENTS BEING MOVED OUT OF THE MAIN TABLE TO WHERE THEY WOULD TAKE UP ROOM ONLY IF NEEDED.
IN THE RELATIONAL MODEL, RELATED RECORDS ARE LINKED TOGETHER WITH A "KEY".
END 1970S SQL DBMS
IBM STARTED WORKING ON A PROTOTYPE SYSTEM LOOSELY BASED ON CODD'S CONCEPTS AS SYSTEM R IN THE
EARLY 1970S. THE FIRST "QUICKIE" VERSION WAS READY IN 1974/5, AND WORK THEN STARTED ON MULTI-TABLE
SYSTEMS IN WHICH THE DATA COULD BE BROKEN DOW N SO THAT ALL OF THE DATA FOR A RECORD (MUCH OF
WHICH IS OFTEN OPTIONAL) DID NOT HAVE TO BE STORED IN A SINGLE LARGE "CHUNK". SUBSEQUENT MULTI-USER
VERSIONS WERE TESTED BY CUSTOMERS IN 1978 AND 1979, BY W HICH TIME A STANDARDIZED QUERY LANGUAGE,
SQL, HAD BEEN ADDED. CODD'S IDEAS WERE ESTABLISHING THEMSELVES AS BOTH WORKABLE AND SUPERIOR TO
CODASYL, PUSHING IBM TO DEVELOP A TRUE PRODUCTION VERSION OF SYSTEM R, KNOWN AS SQL/DS, AND, LATER,
DATABASE 2 (DB2).
MANY OF THE PEOPLE INVOLVED WITH INGRES BECAME CONVINCED OF THE FUTURE COMMERCIAL SUCCESS OF
SUCH SYSTEMS, AND FORMED THEIR OWN COMPANIES TO COMMERCIALIZE THE WORK BUT WITH AN SQL
INTERFACE. SYBASE, INFORMIX, NONSTOP SQL AND EVENTUALLY INGRES ITSELF WERE ALL BEING SOLD AS
OFFSHOOTS TO THE ORIGINAL INGRES PRODUCT IN THE 1980S. EVEN MICROSOFT SQL SERVER IS ACTUALLY A RE-
BUILT VERSION OF SYBASE, AND THUS, INGRES. ONLY LARRY ELLISON'S ORACLE STARTED FROM A DIFFERENT
CHAIN, BASED ON IBM'S PAPERS ON SYSTEM R, AND BEAT IBM TO MARKET WHEN THE FIRST VERSION WAS

4. RELEASED IN 1978.
STONEBRAKER WENT ON TO APPLY THE LESSONS FROM INGRES TO DEVELOP A NEW DATABASE, POSTGRES, W HICH
IS NOW KNOW N AS POSTGRESQL. POSTGRESQL IS PRIMARILY USED FOR GLOBAL MISSION CRITICAL APPLICATIONS
(THE .ORG AND .INFO DOMAIN NAME REGISTRIES USE IT AS THEIR PRIMARY DATA STORE, AS DO MANY LARGE
COMPANIES AND FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS).
IN SWEDEN, CODD'S PAPER WAS ALSO READ AND MIMER SQL WAS DEVELOPED FROM THE MID-70S AT UPPSALA
UNIVERSITY. IN 1984, THIS PROJECT WAS CONSOLIDATED INTO AN INDEPENDENT ENTERPRISE. IN THE EARLY 1980S,
MIMER INTRODUCED TRANSACTION HANDLING FOR HIGH ROBUSTNESS IN APPLICATIONS, AN IDEA THAT WAS
SUBSEQUENTLY IMPLEMENTED ON MOST OTHER DBMS.
DEFINITION OF DATABASE:
A DATABASE IS A COLLECTION OF OCCURRENCE OF MULTIPLE RECORD TYPES CONTAINING THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN RECORDS, DATA AGGREGATE AND DATA ITEMS. A DATABASE MAY BE DEFINED AS
A DATABASE IS A COLLECTION OF INTERRELATED DATA STORE TOGETHER WITHOUT HARMFUL AND UNNECESSARY
REDUNDANCY (DUPLICATE DATA) TO SERVE MULTIPLE APPLICATIONS
THE DATA IS STORED SO THAT THEY ARE INDEPENDENT OF PROGRAMS, WHICH USE THE DATA. A COMMON AND
CONTROL APPROACH IS USED IN ADDING THE NEW DATA, MODIFYING AND RETRIEVING EXISTING DATA OR DELETION
OF DATA WITHIN THE DATABASE. A DATABASE MAY BE DESIGN FOR BATCH PROCESSING, REAL TIME PROCESSING
OR ON LINE PROCESSING.
DATABASE SYSTEM
DATABASE SYSTEM IS AN INTEGRATED COLLECTION OF RELATED FILES ALONG WITH THE DETAIL ABOUT THEIR
DEFINITION, INTERPRETATION, MANIPULATION AND MAINTENANCE. IT IS A SYSTEM, WHICH SATISFIED THE DATA
NEED FOR VARIOUS APPLICATIONS IN AN ORGANIZATION WITHOUT UNNECESSARY REDUNDANCY. A DATABASE
SYSTEM IS BASED ON THE DATA. ALSO A DATABASE SYSTEM CAN BE RUN OR EXECUTED BY USING SOFTWARE
CALLED DBMS (DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM). A DATABASE SYSTEM CONTROLS THE DATA FROM
UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS.
FOUNDATION DATA CONCEPT

5. A HIERARCHY OF SEVERAL LEVELS OF DATA HAS BEEN DEVISED THAT DIFFERENTIATES BETWEEN DIFFERENT
GROUPINGS, OR ELEMENTS, OF DATA. DATA ARE LOGICALLY ORGANIZED INTO:
CHARACTER
IT IS THE MOST BASIC LOGICAL DATA ELEMENT. IT CONSISTS OF A SINGLE ALPHABETIC, NUMERIC, OR OTHER
SYMBOL.
FIELD
IT CONSISTS OF A GROUPING OF CHARACTERS. A DATA FIELD REPRESENTS AN ATTRIBUTE (A CHARACTERISTIC
OR QUALITY) OF SOME ENTITY (OBJECT, PERSON, PLACE, OR EVENT).
RECORD
THE RELATED FIELDS OF DATA ARE GROUPED TO FORM A RECORD. THUS, A RECORD REPRESENTS A
COLLECTION OF ATTRIBUTES THAT DESCRIBE AN ENTITY. FIXED-LENGTH RECORDS CONTAIN, A FIXED NUMBER OF
FIXED-LENGTH DATA FIELDS. VARIABLE-LENGTH RECORDS CONTAIN A VARIABLE NUMBER OF FIELDS AND FIELD
LENGTHS.
FILE
A GROUP OF RELATED RECORDS IS KNOWN AS A DATA FILE, OR TABLE. FILES ARE FREQUENTLY CLASSIFIED BY
THE APPLICATION FOR WHICH THEY AR PRIMARILY USED, SUCH AS A PAYROLL FILE OR AN INVENTORY FILE, OR THE
TYPE OF DATA THEY CONTAIN, SUCH AS A DOCUMENT FILE OR A GRAPHICAL IMAGE FILE. FILES ARE ALSO
CLASSIFIED BY THEIR PERMANENCE, FOR EXAMPLE, A MASTER FILE VERSUS A TRANSACTION FILE. A TRANSACTION
FILE WOULD CONTAIN RECORDS OF
ALL TRANSACTIONS OCCURRING DURING A PERIOD, WHEREAS A MASTER FILE CONTAINS ALL THE PERMANENT
RECORDS. A HISTORY FILE IS AN OBSOLETE TRANSACTION OR MASTER FILE RETAINED FOR BACKUP PURPOSES OR
FOR LONG-TERM HISTORICAL STORAGE CALLED ARCHIVAL STORAGE.
VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS OF DBMS:
THE MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF DATABASE APPROACH ARE:
• SELF-DESCRIBING NATURE OF A DATABASE SYSTEM
• INSULATION BETWEEN PROGRAMS AND DATA, AND DATA ABSTRACTION
• SUPPORT OF MULTIPLE VIEWS OF THE DATA

6. • SHARING OF DATA AND MULTI USER TRANSACTION PROCESSING
DEFINITION OF DBMS:
A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS) IS THE COMBINATION OF DATA, HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND USERS TO
HELP AN ENTERPRISE MANAGE ITS OPERATIONAL DATA.
THE MAIN FUNCTION OF A DBMS IS TO PROVIDE EFFICIENT AND RELIABLE METHODS OF DATA RETRIEVAL TO
MANY USERS. EFFICIENT DATA RETRIEVAL IS AN ESSENTIAL FUNCTION OF DATABASE SYSTEMS. DBMS MUST BE
ABLE TO DEAL WITH SEVERAL USERS WHO TRY TO SIMULTANEOUSLY ACCESS SEVERAL ITEMS AND MOST
FREQUENTLY, THE SAME DATA ITEM A DBMS IS A SET OF PROGRAMS THAT IS USED TO STORE AND MANIPULATION
DATA THAT INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:
• ADDING NEW DATA, FOR EXAMPLE ADDING DETAILS OF NEW STUDENT.
• DELETING UNWANTED DATA, FOR EXAMPLE DELETING THE DETAILS OF STUDENTS W HO HAVE COMPLETED
COURSE.
• CHANGING EXISTING DATA, FOR EXAMPLE MODIFYING THE FEE PAID BY THE STUDENT.
VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF DBMS:
BASIC COMPONENTS: A DATABASE SYSTEM HAS FOUR COMPONENTS. THESE FOUR COMPONENTS ARE IMPORTANT
FOR UNDERSTANDING AND DESIGNING THE DATABASE SYSTEM. THESE ARE:
1. DATA
2. HARDWARE
3. SOFTWARE
4. USERS
1. DATA
AS WE HAVE DISCUSSED ABOVE, DATA IS RAW HAND INFORMATION COLLECTED BY US. DATA IS MADE UP OF
DATA ITEM OR DATA AGGREGATE. A DATA ITEM IS THE SMALLEST UNIT OF NAMED DATA: IT MAY CONSIST OF BITS OR
BYTES. A DATA ITEM IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS FIELD OR DATA ELEMENT. A DATA AGGREGATE IS THE COLLECTION
OF DATA ITEMS WITHIN THE RECORD, WHICH IS GIVEN A NAME AND REFERRED AS A WHOLE. DATA CAN BE
COLLECTED ORALLY OR WRITTEN. A DATABASE CAN BE INTEGRATED AND SHARED. DATA STORED IN A SYSTEM IS
PARTITION INTO ONE OR TWO DATABASES. SO IF BY CHANCE DATA LOST OR DAMAGED AT ONE PLACE, THEN IT CAN
BE ACCESSED FROM THE SECOND PLACE BY USING THE SHARING FACILITY OF DATA BASE SYSTEM. SO A SHARED
DATA ALSO CANE BE REUSED ACCORDING TO THE USER‟S REQUIREMENT. ALSO DATA MUST BE IN THE INTEGRATED
FORM. INTEGRATION MEANS DATA SHOULD BE IN UNIQUE FORM I.E. DATA COLLECTED BY USING A WELL-DEFINED

7. MANNER WITH NO REDUNDANCY, FOR EXAMPLE ROLL NUMBER IN A CLASS IS NON-REDUNDANT FORM AND SO
THESE HAVE UNIQUE RESISTANCE, BUT NAMES IN CLASS MAY BE IN THE REDUNDANT FORM AND CAN CREATE LOT
OF PROBLEMS LATER ON IN USING AND ACCESSING THE DATA.
2. HARDWARE
HARDWARE IS ALSO A MAJOR AND PRIMARY PART OF THE DATABASE. WITHOUT HARDWARE NOTHING CAN BE
DONE. THE DEFINITION OF HARDWARE IS “W HICH WE CAN TOUCH AND SEE”, I.E. IT HAS PHYSICAL EXISTENCES. ALL
PHYSICAL QUANTITY OR ITEMS ARE IN THIS CATEGORY. FOR EXAMPLE, ALL THE HARDWARE INPUT/OUTPUT AND
STORAGE DEVICES LIKE KEYBOARD, MOUSE, SCANNER, MONITOR, STORAGE DEVICES (HARD DISK, FLOPPY DISK,
MAGNETIC DISK, AND MAGNETIC DRUM) ETC. ARE COMMONLY USED WITH A COMPUTER SYSTEM.
3. SOFTWARE
SOFTWARE IS ANOTHER MAJOR PART OF THE DATABASE SYSTEM. IT IS THE OTHER SIDE OF HARDWARE.
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ARE TWO SIDES OF A COIN. THEY GO SIDE BY SIDE. SOFTWARE IS A SYSTEM.
SOFTWARE ARE FURTHER SUBDIVIDED INTO TWO CATEGORIES, FIRST TYPE IS SYSTEM SOFTWARE (LIKE ALL THE
OPERATING SYSTEMS, ALL THE LANGUAGES AND SYSTEM PACKAGES ETC.) AND SECOND ONE IS AN APPLICATION
SOFTWARE (PAYROLL, ELECTRICITY BILLING, HOSPITAL MANAGEMENT AND HOSTEL ADMINISTRATION ETC.). WE CAN
DEFINE SOFTWARE AS WHICH WE CANNOT TOUCH AND SEE. SOFTWARE ONLY CAN EXECUTE. BY USING SOFTWARE,
DATA CAN BE MANIPULATED, ORGANIZED AND STORED. -
4. USERS
WITHOUT USER ALL OF THE ABOVE SAID COMPONENTS (DATA, HARDWARE & SOFTWARE) ARE MEANING LESS.
USER CAN COLLECT THE DATA, OPERATE AND HANDLE THE HARDWARE. ALSO OPERATOR FEEDS THE DATA AND
ARRANGES THE DATA IN ORDER BY EXECUTING THE SOFTWARE. OTHER COMPONENTS
1. PEOPLE - DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR; SYSTEM DEVELOPER; END USER.
2. CASE TOOLS: COMPUTER-AIDED SOFTWARE ENGINEERING (CASE) TOOLS.
3. USER INTERFACE - MICROSOFT ACCESS; POWERBUILDER.
4. APPLICATION PROGRAMS - POWERBUILDER SCRIPT LANGUAGE; VISUAL BASIC; C++; COBOL.
5. REPOSITORY - STORE DEFINITIONS OF DATA CALLED METADATA, SCREEN AND REPORT FORMATS, MENU
DEFINITIONS, ETC.
6. DATABASE - STORE ACTUAL OCCURRENCES DATA.
VARIOUS FUNCTIONS OF DBMS:
THESE FUNCTIONS WILL INCLUDE SUPPORT FOR AT LEAST ALL OF THE FOLLOWING:

8. • DATA DEFINITION: THE DBMS MUST BE ABLE TO ACCEPT DATA DEFINITIONS (EXTERNAL SCHEMAS, THE
CONCEPTUAL SCHEMA, THE INTERNAL SCHEMA, AND ALL ASSOCIATED MAPPINGS) IN SOURCE FORM AND CONVERT
THEM TO THE APPROPRIATE OBJECT FORM.
• DATA MANIPU1ATION: THE DBMS MUST BE ABLE TO HANDLE REQUESTS FROM THE USERS TO RETRIEVE,
UPDATE, OR DELETE EXISTING DATA THE DATABASE, OR TO ADD NEW DATA TO THE DATABASE. IN OTHER WORDS,
THE DBMS MUST INCLUDE A DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML) PROCESSOR COMPONENT.
• DATA SECURITY AND INTEGRITY: THE DBMS MUST MONITOR USER REQUESTS AND REJECT ANY ATTEMPT TO
VIOLATE THE SECURITY AND INTEGRITY RULES DEFINED BY THE DBA.
• DATA RECOVERY AND CONCURRENCY: THE DBMS - OR ELSE SOME OTHER RELATED SOFTWARE COMPONENT,
USUALLY CALLED THE TRANSACTION MANAGER - MUST ENFORCE CERTAIN RECOVERY AND CONCURRENCY
CONTROLS.
• DATA DICTIONARY: THE DBMS MUST PROVIDE A DATA DICTIONARY FUNCTION. THE DATA DICTIONARY CAN BE
REGARDED AS A DATABASE IN ITS OWN RIGHT (BUT A SYSTEM DATABASE, RATHER THAN A USER DATABASE). THE
DICTIONARY CONTAINS “DATA ABOUT THE DATA” (SOMETIMES CALLED METADATA) - THAT IS, DEFINITIONS OF OTHER
OBJECTS IN THE SYSTEM - RATHER THAN JUST”RAW DATA.”
PERFORMANCE: IT GOES WITHOUT SAYING THAT THE DBMS SHOULD PERFORM ALL OF THE FUNCTIONS
IDENTIFIED ABOVE AS EFFICIENTLY AS POSSIBLE.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DBMS:
ADVANTAGES OF DBMS:
ONE OF THE MAJOR ADVANTAGES OF USING A DATABASE SYSTEM IS THAT THE ORGANIZATION CAN BE HANDLED
EASILY AND HAVE CENTRALIZED MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OVER THE DATA BY THE DBA. SOME MORE AND MAIN
ADVANTAGES OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ARE GIVEN BELOW:
THE MAIN ADVANTAGES OF DBMS ARE:
1. CONTROLLING REDUNDANCY
IN A DBMS THERE IS NO REDUNDANCY (DUPLICATE DATA). IF ANY TYPE OF DUPLICATE DATA ARISES, THEN DBA
CAN CONTROL AND ARRANGE DATA IN NON-REDUNDANT WAY. IT STORES THE DATA ON THE BASIS OF A PRIMARY
KEY, W HICH IS ALWAYS UNIQUE KEY AND HAVE NON-REDUNDANT INFORMATION. FOR EXAMPLE, ROLL NO IS THE
PRIMARY KEY TO STORE THE STUDENT DATA.

9. IN TRADITIONAL FILE PROCESSING, EVERY USER GROUP MAINTAINS ITS OWN FILES. EACH GROUP INDEPENDENTLY
KEEPS FILES ON THEIR DB E.G., STUDENTS. THEREFORE, MUCH OF THE DATA IS STORED TWICE OR MORE.
REDUNDANCY LEADS TO SEVERAL PROBLEMS:
• DUPLICATION OF EFFORT
• STORAGE SPACE WASTED WHEN THE SAME DATA IS STORED REPEATEDLY
FILES THAT REPRESENT THE SAME DATA MAY BECOME INCONSISTENT (SINCE THE UPDATES ARE APPLIED
INDEPENDENTLY BY EACH USERS GROUP).WE CAN USE CONTROLLED REDUNDANCY.
2. RESTRICTING UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS
A DBMS SHOULD PROVIDE A SECURITY AND AUTHORIZATION SUBSYSTEM.
• SOME DB USERS WILL NOT BE AUTHORIZED TO ACCESS ALL INFORMATION IN THE DB (E.G., FINANCIAL DATA).
• SOME USERS ARE ALLOWED ONLY TO RETRIEVE DATA.
• SOME USERS ARE ALLOWED BOTH TO RETRIEVE AND TO UPDATE DATABASE.
3. PROVIDING PERSISTENT STORAGE FOR PROGRAM OBJECTS AND DATA STRUCTURES
DATA STRUCTURE PROVIDED BY DBMS MUST BE COMPATIBLE WITH THE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE‟S DATA
STRUCTURES. E.G., OBJECT ORIENTED DBMS ARE COMPATIBLE WITH PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES SUCH AS C++,
SMALL TALK, AND THE DBMS SOFTWARE AUTOMATICALLY PERFORMS CONVERSIONS BETWEEN PROGRAMMING
DATA STRUCTURE AND FILE FORMATS.
4. PERMITTING INFERENCING AND ACTIONS USING DEDUCTION RULES
DEDUCTIVE DATABASE SYSTEMS PROVIDE CAPABILITIES FOR DEFINING DEDUCTION RULES FOR INFERENCING
NEW INFORMATION FROM THE STORED DATABASE FACTS.
5. INCONSISTENCY CAN BE REDUCED
IN A DATABASE SYSTEM TO SOME EXTENT DATA IS STORED IN, INCONSISTENT WAY. INCONSISTENCY IS ANOTHER
FORM OF DELICACY. SUPPOSE THAT AN EM1OYEE “JAPNEET” WORK IN DEPARTMENT “COMPUTER” IS REPRESENTED
BY TWO DISTINCT ENTRIES IN A DATABASE. SO WAY INCONSISTENT DATA IS STORED AND DBA CAN REMOVE THIS
INCONSISTENT DATA BY USING DBMS.
6. DATA CAN BE SHARED
IN A DATABASE SYSTEM DATA CAN BE EASILY SHARED BY DIFFERENT USERS. FOR EXAMPLE, STUDENT DATA CAN
BE SHARE BY TEACHER DEPARTMENT, ADMINISTRATIVE BLOCK, ACCOUNTS BRANCH ARID LABORATORY ETC.
7. STANDARD CAN BE ENFORCED OR MAINTAINED

10. BY USING DATABASE SYSTEM, STANDARD CAN BE MAINTAINED IN AN ORGANIZATION. DBA IS OVERALL
CONTROLLER OF DATABASE SYSTEM. DATABASE IS MANUALLY COMPUTED, BUT W HEN DBA USES A DBMS AND
ENTER THE DATA IN COMPUTER, THEN STANDARD CAN BE ENFORCED OR MAINTAINED BY USING THE
COMPUTERIZED SYSTEM.
8. SECURITY CAN BE MAINTAINED
PASSWORDS CAN BE APPLIED IN A DATABASE SYSTEM OR FILE CAN BE SECURED BY DBA. ALSO IN A DATABASE
SYSTEM, THERE ARE DIFFERENT CODING TECHNIQUES TO CODE THE DATA I.E. SAFE THE DATA FROM
UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS. ALSO IT PROVIDES LOGIN FACILITY TO USE FOR SECURING AND SAVING THE DATA EITHER
BY ACCIDENTAL THREAT OR BY INTENTIONAL THREAT. SAME RECOVERY PROCEDURE CAN BE ALSO MAINTAINED TO
ACCESS THE DATA BY USING THE DBMS FACILITY.
9. INTEGRITY CAN BE MAINTAINED
IN A DATABASE SYSTEM, DATA CAN BE WRITTEN OR STORED IN INTEGRATED WAY. INTEGRATION MEANS
UNIFICATION AND SEQUENCING OF DATA. IN OTHER WORDS IT CAN BE DEFINED AS “THE DATA CONTAINED IN THE
DATA BASE IS BOTH ACCURATE AND CONSISTENT”. „DATA CAN BE ACCESSED IF IT IS COMPILED IN A UNIQUE FORM.
WE CAN TAKE PRIMARY KEY AD SOME SECONDARY KEY FOR INTEGRATION OF DATA. CENTRALIZED CONTROL CAN
ALSO ENSURE THAT ADEQUATE CHECKS ARE INCORPORATED IN THE DBMS TO PROVIDE DATA INTEGRITY.
10. CONFLICTION CAN BE REMOVED
IN A DATABASE SYSTEM, DATA CAN BE WRITTEN OR ARRANGED IN A WELL-DEFINED MANNER BY DBA. SO THERE
IS NO CONFLICTION BETWEEN THE DATABASES. DBA SELECT THE BEST FILE STRUCTURE AND ACCESSING
STRATEGY TO GET BETTER PERFORMANCE FOR THE REPRESENTATION AND USE OF THE DATA.
11. PROVIDING MULTIPLE USER INTERFACES
FOR EXAMPLE QUERY LANGUAGES, PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES INTERFACES, FORMS, MENU- DRIVEN
INTERFACES, ETC.
12. REPRESENTING COMPLEX RELATIONSHIPS AMONG DATA
IT IS USED TO REPRESENT COMPLEX RELATIONSHIPS AMONG DATA
13. PROVIDING BACKUP AND RECOVERY
THE DBMS ALSO PROVIDES BACK UP AND RECOVERY FEATURES.
DISADVANTAGES OF DBMS:

11. DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM HAS MANY ADVANTAGES, BUT DUE TO SOME MAJOR PROBLEM ARISE IN USING
THE DBMS, IT HAS SOME DISADVANTAGES. THESE ARE EXPLAINED AS:
1.COST
A SIGNIFICANT DISADVANTAGE OF DBMS IS COST. IN ADDITION TO THE COST OF PURCHASING OR DEVELOPING
THE SOFTWARE, THE ORGANIZATION *111 ALSO PURCHASE OR UPGRADE THE HARDWARE AND SO IT BECOMES A
COSTLY SYSTEM. ALSO ADDITIONAL COST OCCURS DUE TO MIGRATION OF DATA FROM ONE ENVIRONMENT OF DBMS
TO ANOTHER ENVIRONMENT.
2. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH CENTRALIZATION
CENTRALIZATION ALSO MEANS THAT DATA IS ACCESSIBLE FROM A SINGLE SOURCE. AS WE KNOW THE
CENTRALIZED DATA CAN BE ACCESSED BY EACH USER, SO THERE IS NO SECURITY OF DATA FROM UNAUTHORIZED
ACCESS AND DATA CAN BE DAMAGED OR LOST.
3. COMPLEXITY OF BACKUP AND RECOVERY
BACKUP AND RECOVERY ARE FAIRLY COMPLEX IN DBMS ENVIRONMENT. AS IN A DBMS, IF YOU TAKE A BACKUP
OF THE DATA THEN IT MAY AFFECT THE MULTI-USER DATABASE SYSTEM WHICH IS IN OPERATION. DAMAGE
DATABASE CAN BE RECOVERED FROM THE BACKUP FLOPPY, BUT ITERATE DUPLICACY IN LOADING TO THE
CONCURRENT MULTI-USER DATABASE SYSTEM.
4. CONFIDENTIALITY, PRIVACY AND SECURITY
WHEN INFORMATION IS CENTRALIZED AND IS MADE AVAILABLE TO USERS FROM REMOTE LOCATIONS, THE
POSSIBILITIES OF ABUSE ARE OFTEN MORE THAN IN A CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM. TO REDUCE THE CHANCES OF
UNAUTHORIZED USERS ACCESSING SENSITIVE INFORMATION, IT IS NECESSARY TO TAKE TECHNICAL,
ADMINISTRATIVE AND, POSSIBLY, LEGAL MEASURES. MOST, DATABASES STORE VALUABLE INFORMATION THAT MUST
BE PROTECTED AGAINST DELIBERATE TRESPASS AND DESTRUCTION.
5. DATA QUALITY
SINCE THE DATABASE IS ACCESSIBLE TO USERS REMOTELY, ADEQUATE CONTROLS ARE NEEDED TO CONTROL
USERS UPDATING DATA AND TO CONTROL DATA QUALITY. WITH INCREASED NUMBER OF USERS ACCESSING DATA
DIRECTLY, THERE ARE ENORMOUS OPPORTUNITIES FOR USERS TO DAMAGE THE DATA. UNLESS THERE ARE
SUITABLE CONTROLS, THE DATA QUALITY MAY BE COMPROMISED.
6. DATA INTEGRITY
SINCE A LARGE NUMBER OF USERS COULD BE USING .A DATABASE CONCURRENTLY, TECHNICAL SAFEGUARDS
ARE NECESSARY TO ENSURE THAT THE DATA REMAIN CORRECT DURING OPERATION. THE MAIN THREAT TO DATA
INTEGRITY COMES FROM SEVERAL DIFFERENT USERS ATTEMPTING TO UPDATE THE SAME DATA AT THE SAME TIME.
THE DATABASE THEREFORE NEEDS TO BE PROTECTED AGAINST INADVERTENT CHANGES BY THE USERS.
7. ENTERPRISE VULNERABILITY

12. CENTRALIZING ALL DATA OF AN ENTERPRISE IN ONE DATABASE MAY MEAN THAT THE DATABASE BECOMES AN
INDISPENSABLE RESOURCE. THE SURVIVAL OF THE ENTERPRISE MAY DEPEND ON RELIABLE INFORMATION BEING
AVAILABLE FROM ITS DATABASE. THE ENTERPRISE THEREFORE BECOMES VULNERABLE TO THE DESTRUCTION OF
THE DATABASE OR TO UNAUTHORIZED MODIFICATION OF THE DATABASE.
8. THE COST OF USING A DBMS
CONVENTIONAL DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS ARE TYPICALLY DESIGNED TO RUN A NUMBER OF WELL-DEFINED,
PREPLANNED PROCESSES. SUCH SYSTEMS ARE OFTEN “TUNED” TO RUN EFFICIENTLY FOR THE PROCESSES THAT
THEY WERE DESIGNED FOR. ALTHOUGH THE CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS ARE USUALLY FAIRLY INFLEXIBLE IN THAT
NEW APPLICATIONS MAY BE DIFFICULT TO IMPLEMENT AND/OR EXPENSIVE TO RUN, THEY ARE USUALLY VERY
EFFICIENT FOR THE APPLICATIONS THEY ARE DESIGNED FOR.
THE DATABASE APPROACH ON THE OTHER HAND PROVIDES A FLEXIBLE ALTERNATIVE WHERE NEW
APPLICATIONS CAN BE DEVELOPED RELATIVELY INEXPENSIVELY. THE FLEXIBLE APPROACH IS NOT WITHOUT ITS
COSTS AND ONE OF THESE COSTS IS THE ADDITIONAL COST OF RUNNING APPLICATIONS THAT THE CONVENTIONAL
SYSTEM WAS DESIGNED FOR. USING STANDARDIZED SOFTWARE IS ALMOST ALWAYS LESS MACHINE EFFICIENT
THAN SPECIALIZED SOFTWARE.
APPLICATION OF DBMS IN BUSINESS TODAY :
ALL BUSINESSES/COMPANIES MAINTAIN AND USE DATA FOR DAY-TO-DAY BUSINESS OPERATIONS. A DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IS THE SOFTWARE THAT IS USED TO STORE DATA, MAINTAIN THOSE DATA, AND PROVIDE
EASY ACCESS TO STORED DATA. IT ALLOWS BUSINESS/COMPANY TO STORE DATA IN A CENTRAL LOCATION USING A
STANDARD FORMAT.
DATA ARE A VALUABLE BUSINESS/COMPANY RESOURCE. GOOD DATA AND INFORMATION RETRIEVAL TECHNOLOGY
CAN IMPROVE THE BUSINESS/COMPANY'S ABILITY TO COMPETE IN AN INDUSTRY, DELIVER PRODUCTS TO
CONSUMERS, AND EVALUATE OPPORTUNITIES. THE LOSS OR CONTAMINATION OF AN BUSINESS/COMPANY'S DATA
CAN CONTRIBUTE TO FAILURE.
A GOOD MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROVIDES USERS WITH FACILITIES TO MAINTAIN STORED DATA, TOOLS TO CREATE
SCREENS USED TO VIEW AND UPDATE DATA, REPORT GENERATION CAPABILITIES, QUERY SERVICES TO OBTAIN
FAST ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ABOUT THE DATA, AND COMMON INTERFACES TO SHARE DATA.
WHAT ROLE DOES DATABASE MANAGEMENT PLAY IN MANAGING DATA AS A BUSINESS RESOURCE?
THE ROLE IS ONE OF APPLYING INFORMATION SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES LIKE DATABASE MANAGEMENT
DATA WAREHOUSING, AND OTHER DATA MANAGEMENT TOOLS TO THE TASK OF MANAGING AN ORGANIZATION‟S
DATA RESOURCES TO MEET THE INFORMATION NEEDS OF THEIR BUSINESS STAKEHOLDERS.
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN A BUSINESS INFORMATION SYSTEM?
A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IS A SET OF COMPUTER PROGRAMS THAT CONTROLS THE CREATION,
MAINTENANCE, AND USE OF THE DATABASES OF AN ORGANIZATION. MAJOR USES ARE DATABASE DEVELOPMENT,
DATABASE INTERROGATION, DATABASE MAINTENANCE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF APPLICATION PROGRAMS.