Introduction of Linux – History, Distributions Exploring Command line tools – shells, redirection, pipes Software Management – RPM, dpkg Hardware configuration– modprobe, lspci, lsmod, insmod, rmmod Managing Files – mkdir, cp, rm, grep, find Administering the system – useradd, usermod, shutdown, crontab, chown Networking – ifconfig, route, nslookup, ping, samba, ftp, http, mail, ssh, scp

1. Linux
Arti Srivastava

2. Agenda
2
1. Introduction of Linux – History, Distributions
2. Exploring Command line tools – shells, redirection, pipes
3. Software Management – RPM, dpkg
4. Hardware configuration– modprobe, lspci, lsmod, insmod, rmmod
5. Managing Files – mkdir, cp, rm, grep, find
6. Administering the system – useradd, usermod, shutdown, crontab, chown
7. Networking – ifconfig, route, nslookup, ping, samba, ftp, http, mail, ssh, scp

3. 3
1. Introduction of Linux – History, Distributions

4. History
4
 In 80’s, Microsoft’s DOS was the dominated OS for PC
 Apple MAC was better, but expensive
 UNIX was much better, but much, much more expensive. Only for
minicomputer for commercial applications
 People were looking for a UNIX based system, which is cheaper and can run
on PC
 Both DOS, MAC and UNIX were proprietary, i.e., the source code of their
kernel is protected
 No modification is possible without paying high license fees

5. GNU
5
Established in 1984 by Richard Stallman, who believes that software should be free
from restrictions against copying or modification in order to make better and efficient
computer programs
GNU is a recursive acronym for “GNU's Not Unix”
Aim at developing a complete Unix-like operating system which is free for copying
and modification
Companies make their money by maintaining and distributing the software, e.g.
optimally packaging the software with different tools (Redhat, Slackware, Mandrake,
SuSE, etc)
Stallman built the first free GNU C Compiler in 1991. But still, an OS was yet to be
developed

6. Begin Linux
6
 Andrew Tanenbaum developed Minix, a simplified version of UNIX that runs on
PC
 In Sept 1991, Linus Torvalds, a second year student of Computer Science at the
University of Helsinki, developed the preliminary kernel of Linux, known as
Linux version 0.0.1
 Soon more than a hundred people joined the Linux camp. Then thousands.
Then hundreds of thousands
 It was licensed under GNU General Public License, thus ensuring that the
source codes will be free for all to copy, study and to change.

7. 7
 At 25/11/2012 08:31pm, there are 118,240 users and 95,204 machines registered.
My guess at the number of Linux users: 63,195,939
 World population: 7,096,950,557
Internet users: 2,478,272,151
– Taken from linuxcounter.net

8. Major Software from GNU Project
8
Gcc : c compiler
G++: C++ compiler
Gdb: source code debugger
GNU make: a version of make
Bison: a parser generator
Bash: command shell
GNU emacs: a text editor

9. Linux directory structure
9
/ - root directory
/bin – essential programs
/boot – boot information for linux
/dev – includes all devices
/mnt – storage devices are mounted
/proc – fluid data and status of kernel
/sbin – sys admin software
/etc – admin related config files and folders
/home
/lib
/tmp
/usr
/var

10. Linux Variant
10
Suse
Redhat
Debian
Mandrake
Ubuntu
Centos
ScientificOS

11. Desktop Applications
11
Word processing (OpenOffice, Koffice)
Programming (C, C++, Perl, Python, Java, PHP)
Graphics (GIMP)
Web browsers (Mozilla, Konquerer)
Email (Evolution, Mozilla, KMail)
Audio (amarok)
Video (mplayer)
Games (MAME)

12. Linux continue to grow…
12
Mobile OS: Android is Linux based
 Major Virtualization flavour: Base kernel is Linux
 Citrix Xen
 Vmware
Cloud solution - Openstack

13. 13

14. 14
2. Exploring Command line tools – shells, redirection, pipes

15. Shell
15
 Bash – Baurne Again Shell (Default Shell)
 Csh
 Tcsh
 Zsh
 In GUI – xterm, kconsole

16. Shell Configuration Files
16
 Login config files:
 ~/.bashrc
 ~/.profile
 ~/.bash_login
 ~/.bash_logout
 Global configuration file
 /etc/profile
 /etc/bash.bashrc
 Shell variable
 Using Environment variables: env
 PATH
 alias
 set
 unset

17. Commands
17
 Change the working directory – cd, cd~, cd /, cd /var/log
 Display the working directory – pwd
 Display a line of text – echo Hello
 Execute a program – exec myprog
 Time an operation – time lsof
 Total execution time, user cpu time, system cpu time
 Set options – environment variables
 Terminate the shell
 Exit
 logout

18. MAN Page
18
 1 Executable programs and shell commands
 2 System calls provided by the kernel
 3 Library calls provided by program libraries
 4 Device files (usually stored in /dev)
 5 File formats
 6 Games
 7 Miscellaneous (macro packages, conventions, and so on)
 8 System administration commands (programs run mostly or exclusively
 by root)
 9 Kernel routines

19. Redirection
19
 > : Creates a new file containing standard output. If the specified file exists, it’s
overwritten.
 >> : Appends standard output to the existing file. If the specified file doesn’t exist,
it’s created.
 2> : Creates a new file containing standard error. If the specified file exists, it’s
overwritten.
 2>> : Appends standard error to the existing file. If the specified file doesn’t exist,
it’s created.
 &> : Creates a new file containing both standard output and standard error. If the
specified file exists, it’s overwritten.
 < : Sends the contents of the specified file to be used as standard input.
 << : Accepts text on the following lines as standard input.

20. Redirection continued…
20
 <> : Causes the specified file to be used for both standard input and standard
output.
 tee command
View the command and send the output to another file
lsmod | tee lsmod.txt

21. Pipes
21
 ps aux | grep apache
 xargs
 find ./ -name “*~” | xargs rm

22. Less is more
22
 more
 less

23. 23
3. Software Management – RPM, dpkg, yum, processes

24. Package Concepts
24
 Packages: collection of files
 Installed file database
 Dependencies
 Checksums
 Upgrades and uninstallation
 Package naming: samba-4.0.12-24.i386.rpm
– Package name
– Version no
– Build no
– arhitecture

25. RPM Operations
25
 -i : Installs a package;
 -U : Installs a new package or upgrades an existing one
 -F or --freshen : Upgrades a package only if an earlier version already exists
 -q : Queries a package—finds if a package is installed, what files it contains, and so on
 -V or --verify : Verifies a package—checks that its files are present and unchanged
since installation
 -e : Uninstalls a package

26. rpm examples
26
 rpm -qa -> lists all the installed packages
 rpm -qc {pname} -> list configuartion file names for given package
 rpm -qi {pnane} -> Give details of package
 rpm -ql {pname} -> lists the files in a package
 rpm -qR {pname} -> Lists package dependencies
 rpm -qf filename -> List the package name of given file
 rpm -qpl {pname} -> lists all the files in a package
 rpm -qp {pname} -> list the package with given pname(*/?)
 rpm -Va -> Verify all the installed packages
 rpm -V {pname} -> Verify specify package
 rpm -V -f {filename} {packagename} -> Verify a specified file in a package

27. rpm continued…
27
 extracting data from rpms – rpm2cpio
$ rpm2cpio XXXsrc.rpm > xxx.cpio
$cpio –i –make-directories < xxx.cpio
$rpm2cpio xxxsrc.rpm | cpio –i –make-directories

28. dpkg
 dpkg –i xxx.deb
 dpkg –r xxx.deb
 apt-get install xxx

29. dpkg
 dselect utility – menu driven
 aptitude install/update/remove
 /etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg and ~/.dpkg.cfg,
 /etc/apt/apt.conf(controls dselect and apt)

30. Yum
 /etc/yum.repos.d
 /etc/yum.conf
 Yum client
 Redhat 5: yum
 Sles10 : zypper
 Sles11 : rug
 Yum installation
 Setting the yum repo
 install, upgrade, uninstall
Try this: http://linux.dell.com/repo/hardware/

31. alien
 Covert packages from one format to another
Formats are:
Linux standard base
RPM
deb
stampede(.slp)
Solaris(.pkg)
Slackware(.tgz)
# alien --to-rpm --scripts ./mypkg.deb

32. Library management
 /etc/ld.so.conf
 /etc/ld.so.conf.d/*.conf
 Temporarily changing the library path
 LD_LIBRARY_PATH
 $ export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/usr/local/testlib:/opt/newlib
ldd Displaying shared library dependencies :
 ldd /bin/cat

33. Understanding the kernel
 uname –n -> hostname
 uname –s -> kernel name
 uname –v -> kernel version
 uname –r -> kernel release
 uname –m -> machine option
 uname –p -> Processor
 uname –o -> Operating system
 uname –i -> Hardware platform
 uname –a -> all information

34. Process – ps output meaning(columns)
 Username
 Process ID
 Parent Process ID
 TTY – identifying terminal
 Cpu time
 Cpu priority
 memory use
 Command

35. Other Process related commands
 Dynamic variant of process – top
 nice : Run a program with modified scheduling priority. Priority ranges from
-20(most favorable) to +19(least favorable)
 renice : alter priority of running processes
 kill
 nohup
 killall

36. 4. Hardware configuration– modprobe, lspci, lsmod, insmod, rmmod
36 Confidential

37. Hardware
 BIOS – resides on the motherboard in ROM – EEPROM/Flash memory
When computer is turned on- BIOS performs POST and initializes hardware and
then load boot loader
 IRQ - An interrupt request (IRQ), or interrupt, is a signal sent to the CPU instructing
it to suspend its current activity and to handle some external event such as
keyboard input. /proc/interrupts
 I/O addresses (also referred to as I/O ports) are unique locations in memory that
are reserved for communications between the CPU and specific physical hardware
devices. Like IRQs, These are commonly associated with specific devices and
should not ordinarily be shared.
 DMA Addresses - Direct memory addressing (DMA) is an alternative method of
communication to I/O ports. Rather than have the CPU mediate the transfer of data
between a device and memory, DMA permits the device to transfer data directly,
without the CPU’s attention. The result can be lower CPU requirements for I/O
activity, which can improve overall system performance.
/proc/dma

38. Common Linux Devices
• Linux Device Windows Name Typical IRQ I/O Address
• /dev/ttyS0 COM1 4 0x03f8
• /dev/ttyS1 COM2 3 0x02f8
• /dev/ttyS2 COM3 4 0x03e8
• /dev/ttyS3 COM4 3 0x02e8
• /dev/lp0 LPT1 7 0x0378-0x037f
• /dev/lp1 LPT2 5 0x0278-0x027f
• /dev/fd0 A: 6 0x03f0-0x03f7
• /dev/fd1 B: 6 0x0370-0x0377

39. Coldplug and Hotplug devices
 Colplug devices – Components internal to the computer such as memory, CPU, pci
cards etc. resides on the motherboard in ROM – EEPROM/Flash memory
 Hotplug devices – Devices which can be added/removed when the system is in
running state.

40. Configuring expansion cards
 lspci
 setpci
• /usr/share/misc/pci.ids

41. Learning about kernel modules
 lsmod
 insmod
 modprobe
 rmmod
 modinfo

42. Configuring USB devices
 USB basics
 USB 1.0 and USB 1.1 : 12Mbps
 USB 2.0 : 48Mbps
 USB 3.0 : 3.2 Gbps
 USB devices: Scanner, printer, mice, digital camera, keyboard, speakers etc.
 lsusb
 /proc/bus/usb
 usbmgr
 /etc/usbmgr/usbmgr.conf

43. Systems Run Levels
 0: Halt
 1: single User mode
 2: Multi user mode without NFS
 3: Full multi user mode
 4: unused
 5: X11
 6: reboot

44. File Systems
 fdisk
 mkfs –t ext3 /dev/sda2
 mkswap /dev/hda2
 swapon /dev/hda2
 fsck
 /etc/fstab
 df
 du

45. 5. Managing Files – mkdir, cp, rm, grep, find
45 Confidential

46. File types
 Regular file
 Directory file
 Special file
 Character
 Block
Links
 Soft link
 Hard link
Sockets
Named pipes

47. Managing Links
 ln [options] source link
 Hard link: ln mainfile hlinkfile
 Soft link: ln –s mainfile slinkfile

48. Inode table
 Owner of the file
 Group of the file
 File type
 File access permission
 Date and time of last access
 Date and time of last modification
 Number of links to the file
 Size of the file
 Addresses of blocks where the file is physically present

49. Surrogate super block and Inode table
 Super block – state of the file system
 Size
 No of files it can accommodate
 How many mores can be created
 sync

50. How to check file inode no
 ls –i filename

51. File Commands
 ls
 cp
 mv
 rm
 touch : Last file modification time/inode change time/access time
 ln
 chmod
 chown
 mkdir
 rmdir
 umask

52. File Commands contd…
 cut
 paste
 join
 split
 expand
 unexpand
 uniq
 sort
 head
 tail
 wc
 tr
 nl

53. File Archiving Commands
 tar
 cpio
 gzip
 Gunzip
 bzip2

54. Managing file ownership
 Changing file ownership: chown
 Chown [options] [newowner][:newgroup] filename
 Changing file group ownership
 chgrp [options] [newgroup] filename

55. File Access
 Changing file permission: chmod
$ ls -l test
-rwxr-xr-x 1 rodsmith users 111 Apr 13 13:48 test
– “-” -> file
– d -> firectory
– l -> symbolic link
– p -> Named pipe
– s -> Socket
– b -> Block device
– c -> Character device
SUID
SGID
Sticky bit

56. Setting the default mode and group
 Default permissions are configurable and defined by user mask.(umask)
• Umask Created Files Created Directories
• 000 666 (rw-rw-rw-) 777 (rwxrwxrwx)
• 002 664 (rw-rw-r--) 775 (rwxrwxr-x)
• 022 644 (rw-r--r--) 755 (rwxr-xr-x)
• 027 640 (rw-r-----) 750 (rwxr-x---)
• 077 600 (rw-------) 700 (rwx------)
• 277 400 (r--------) 500 (r-x------)

57. Managing Disk Quotas
 Enabling Quota Support
 Kernel 2.4.x – quota v1 support
 Kernel 2.6.x – quota v2 support
 /etc/fstab
/dev/hdc5 /home ext3 usrquota,grpquota 1 1
 chkconfig quota on
 Setting quota for users, edquota raghu

58. Locating Files
 whereis
 which
 locate
 find
 type
 Updatedb
 /etc/updatedb.conf

59. Regular Expressions
59
 Bracket Expressions: d[aeiou]g => dag, deg, dig, dog, dug
 Range Expression : a[1-5] => a1, a2, a3, a4, a5
 Any single character except new line: .
 Start and end of line: ^ and $
 Repetition operators: * -> 0 and more), + -> 1 and more, ? -> 0 and 1
 Any single character except new line: .
 Multiple possible strings: Linux | Windows
 Escaping: backslash

60. grep
60
 grep [options] regexp [files]
 grep openmanage /var/log/messages
 grep –i openmanage /var/log/messages
 grep –r –i openmanage /var/log
 grep –r –i error /var/log

61. Sed(stream editor)
61
 Modifies the contents of files
• sed [options] -f script-file [input-file]
• sed [options] script-text [input-file]
 $ sed ‘s/2009/2010/’ cal-2009.txt > cal-2010.txt

62. awk
62
 Print list of all processes of all the users
 ps -ef | awk '{print $1"=>" $8}‘
 Print all the child process of PPID 1.
 ps -ef | grep -w 1 | grep -v /1 | awk '{print $2"=>"$3"=>"$8}‘
 Display and create all the loaded module details in a file
 lsmod | awk '{print $1}'| xargs modinfo | tee mod.txt

63. File Systems
63
 Ext2/3: Native file system
 Reiserfs : Suitable for small files – less than 1K
 Vfat : 32bit file system compatible with win
 XFS : Journaling file systems –handle large files
 JFS : Handles power down and crashes
 Swap: virtual memory
 Iso9660 : cdfs, dvd

64. 64

65. 6. Administering the system – useradd, usermod, shutdown, crontab, chown
65 Confidential

66. Booting Linux and editing files
66 Confidential

67. Boot Loaders
 BIOS->MBR->Boot loader->OS kernel
 LILO
 GRUB
 Boot messages:
 /var/log/messages
 Command dmesg

68. LILO – Linux Loader
 Configuration file: /etc/lilo.conf
 Boot loader location: boot=/dev/hda
 Default: default os to boot
 Boot Prompt
 Boot Timeout
 Linux root partition, root=/dev/hda4
 Boot in read-only mode
 Linux boot image: image=/kernelimage
 RAM disk: initrd=oskernel imahe
 Extra kernel option: mem=2048
 Lilo –c – testing purpose
 Lilo –v – output in verpose

69. LILO prompt
 Boot: linux 1 -> To boot in single user mode 1/S/s/single can be typed
 If suppose init program is corrupted
 Boot: linux init=/bin/sh can be used

70. GRUB
 Configuration file: /boot/grub/menu.lst (some read/fedora used grub.conf)

71. LILO and GRUB
Confidential71
LILO GRUB
/dev/hda (hd0)
/dev/hda1 (hd0,0)
/dev/hdb (hd1)
/etc/lilo.conf /boot/grub/menu.lst
lilo /etc/lilo.conf grub-install /dev/hda

72. Linux Boot Process
• System Power on-> CPU executes BIOS code->BIOS(Post, check and configure
hardware)->Boot loader kicks off->OS kernel is loaded(initialize devices, mount
boot partition, init program starts->init selects run level from /etc/inittab and default
level run level loads
Inittab entry
• id:runlevels:action:process
# Default runlevel. The runlevels used by RHS are:
# 0 - halt (Do NOT set initdefault to this)
# 1 - Single user mode
# 2 - Multiuser, without NFS (The same as 3, if you do not have networking)
# 3 - Full multiuser mode
# 4 - unused
# 5 - X11
# 6 - reboot (Do NOT set initdefault to this)

73. Linux Boot Process contd..
 inittab file
 id:3:initdefault:
 5:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty5
 chkconfig : updates and queries run level information for system services.
 runlevel : Find the current and previous run level
 init : parent of all the processes
 telinit: tell init to switch to specified runlevel
 shutdown

74. Life cycle of a process
 fork and exec
 init – process id 1
 getty
 login
 sh
 Who or grep or any command running on shell
 kill

75. Linux installation and designing hard disk layout
 / : default root partition
 /var : logs related entries
 /home: User home directory
 /opt: Optional packages
 Swap space: typically double of RAM

76. Managing Users
 useradd
 usermod
 userdel
 groupadd
 groupmod
 gpasswd
 Chage: change user password expiry information

77. usermod
 Usermod –l [newlogin] [login]
 Usermod –c [comment login]
 Usermod –f [no of days] [login] => no of days password to expire
 Usermod –L [login] -> lock the password and suspend the user
 Usermod –U [login] -> unlock the password
 Usermod –e [yyyy-mm-dd] [login] -> change the expiration date

78. Tuning User and System Environments
 Global Configuration file
 /etc/profile
 /etc/bash.bashrc
 User Configuration file
 ~/.profile
 ~/.bashrc
 Configuartion file for added user’s fefault environment setting
 /etc/skel
 Kernel Parameter
 /etc/sysctl.conf
 sysctl

79. Automate system administration tasks by scheduling jobs
 Manage cron and at jobs
 Configure user access to cron and at services
 The following is a partial list of the used files, terms, and utilities:
 /etc/cron.{d,daily,hourly,monthly,weekly}
 /etc/crontab
 crontab –e

80. Cron job Definition
80
* * * * * Command
Minute(0-59)
Hour(0-23)
Day of month(0-31)
Month(1-12)
Day of week(1-7)

81. System logging
 Syslog configuration files: /etc/syslog.conf
 /etc/sysconfig/syslog
 /var/log
 /var/log/messages
 dmesg
 last
 Binary names:
 syslogd
 klogd

82. Systems Monitoring
 Process
 ps
 top
 Disk space
 df
 du
 Bandwidth
 tcpdump
 netstat
 Memory
 pmap
 ps
 free
 other commands
 lsof

83. Systems Monitoring contd…
 uptime: Load average is average no of processes waiting to run in 1min, 5min, and
15 mins. Ideally it should be <1.
 tload is graphical presentation of uptime.
 vmstat-Virtual memory usage
 pmap -x pid: mapping of processes with memory resources
 scsiinfo
 hdparam

84. Perform security administration tasks
 Audit system to find files with the suid/sgid bit set.
 Set or change user passwords and password aging information.
 Discovering open ports on a system: nmap, netstat
 Setting up limits on user logins, processes and memory usage
 ulimit
 Basic sudo configuration and usage
 /etc/sudoers

85. Linux Kernel
 Module components in source tree: /usr/src/linux
 Module components at runtime: /lib/modules/<kernelversion>/kernel.
 Download latest stable kernel from www.kernel.org
 Unpack the kernel
 Compiling a kernel:
 make config/menuconifg/xconfig
 make dep
 make bzImage
 make modules
 make modules_install
 make install
 Installing the kernel image using boot loader: /boot/grub/grub.conf
 Reboot the system and new kernel should be up

86. Shell Scripting
 Variables – strings, numbers, environment and paramter
 Conditions: shell booleans
 Control Structures: if, elif, for, while, until, case
 Lists
 Functions
 Commands built into shell
 Getting the result of a command
 Here documents

87. Quoting
 Declaration
 svar = “Hello world”
 $svar
 “$svar”
 ‘$svar’
 $svar

88. Environment Variables
 $HOME
 $PATH
 $PS1
 $PS2
 $0
 $#
 $$
 $1, $2, $3…
 $*
 $@

89. Control Structures
 If
if condition
then
Statements
else
Statements
fi
 elif
if condition
then
Statements
elif
then
statements
else
Statements
fi

90. Control Structures contd..
 for
for variable in values
do
statements
done
 while
while condition do
statements
done
 until
until condition
do
statements
done

91. Control Structures contd..
 Case
Case variable in
pattern1 statements;;
pattern2 statements;;
pattern3 statements;;
esac

92. Debugging scripts
 sh –n <script>
 sh –v <script>
 sh –x <script>

93. GUI Based Monitoring tools
 Nagios
 Cacti
 Zabbix
 MRTG
 Nfsen

94. 7. Networking
94 Confidential

95. Basic Network Configuration
Manually and automatically configure network interfaces
Basic TCP/IP host configuration
The following is a partial list of the used files, terms, and utilities:
 /etc/hostname
 /etc/hosts
 /etc/resolv.conf
 /etc/nsswitch.conf
 ifconfig

96. Configuring Network
 /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0
 A Sample Network Configuration File
 DEVICE=eth0
 BOOTPROTO=static
 IPADDR=192.168.29.39
 NETMASK=255.255.255.0
 NETWORK=192.168.29.0
 BROADCAST=192.168.29.255
 GATEWAY=192.168.29.1
 ONBOOT=yes
 # ifconfig eth0 up 192.168.29.39 netmask 255.255.255.0
 # route add default gw 192.168.29.1
 ifconfig eth0
 DNS Entry: /etc/resolv.conf

97. Configuring routing
# route add -net 172.20.0.0 netmask 255.255.0.0 gw 172.21.1.1
ifup eth0
ifdown eth0
ethtool

98. Network Port numbers
• Port Number TCP or UDP Purpose Example Linux Servers
 20 TCP File Transfer Protocol ProFTPd, vsftpd
 21 TCP FTP ProFTPd, vsftpd
 22 TCP Secure Shell (SSH) OpenSSH, Dropbear
 23 TCP Telnet in.telnetd
 25 TCP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)Sendmail, Postfix,
 53 TCP and UDP Domain Name System (DNS) BIND;

99. Diagnosing Network connections
ping
traceroute
netstat
nslookup
 dig
Examining raw network traffic
– tcpdump
– wireshark

100. Various tools
telnet
ftp
ssh
scp
 ping

101. Linux Server
Web Server – Apache
Database Server – mysql, oracle
ftp server – proftp, vsftp
File server - samba
Mail server – sendmail, postfix

102. Linux Firewall
#iptables -t filter -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j DROP
#iptables -t filter -A INPUT -p udp --dport 22 -j DROP
#iptables -t filter -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 23 -j DROP
#iptables -t filter -A INPUT -p udp --dport 23 -j DROP
#iptables -t filter -P OUPUT DROP
#iptables -t filter -A OUTPUT -p tcp --dport 80 -j ACCEPT
#iptables -t filter -A OUTPUT -p udp --dport 80 -j ACCEPT
#iptables -t filter -A OUTPUT -p tcp --dport 53 -j ACCEPT
#iptables -t filter -A OUTPUT -p udp --dport 53 -j ACCEPT
# service iptables save
#service iptables restart

103. Exercise
How long the server is running and no of users who are using the system.
 Create a user with your name, create a group name training, validity
period, home directory, assign training group
Search for files with specific pattern
Display line no 10 to line no 20 , from a file having 30 lines.
 print file in reverse
Command to check if the all the file on given directory does not contain a
given word[e.g error]
Sort the content of a file and copy only unique entries to the new file
List files having links.

104. References/Recommendations:
www.tldp.org
www.kernel.org
www.linux.org
LinuxFoundationX: LFS101x.2 Introduction to Linux - www.edx.org

105. Exercise(Answers)
• How long the server is running and no of users who are using the system.
uptime
• Search for files ending with .log
find ./ -name “*.log”
• Display line no 10 to line no 20 , from a file having 30+ lines.
sed –n 11,20 [filename]
• Display last 10 lines
tail –n 10 [filename]
• print file in reverse
tac [filename]

106. Exercise(Answers)
• Command to check if the all the file on given directory does not contain a
given word[e.g error]
grep –vi error *.txt
• Sort the content of a file and copy only unique entries to the new file
sort a.txt | uniq > b.txt
• List files having links.
ls –l | grep “^l”