RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT R2P

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Responsibility to protect
The Responsibility to Protect (R2P or RtoP) is a global political commitment which was endorsed by all member
states of the United Nations at the 2005 World Summit to prevent genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes
against humanity.[1][2]
The principle of the Responsibility to Protect is based upon the underlying premise that sovereignty entails a
responsibility to protect all populations from mass atrocity crimes and human rights violations.[3][4][5] The principle is
based on a respect for the norms and principles of international law, especially the underlying principles of law relating to
sovereignty, peace and security, human rights, and armed conflict.[6][7]
The Responsibility to Protect provides a framework for employing measures that already exist (i.e., mediation, early
warning mechanisms, economic sanctions, and chapter VII powers) to prevent atrocity crimes and to protect civilians
from their occurrence. The authority to employ the use of force under the framework of the Responsibility to Protect rests
solely with United Nations Security Council and is considered a measure of last resort.[8] The United Nations Secretary-
General has published annual reports on the Responsibility to Protect since 2009 that expand on the measures available
to governments, intergovernmental organizations, and civil society, as well as the private sector, to prevent atrocity
crimes.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]
The Responsibility to Protect has been the subject of considerable debate, particularly regarding the implementation of the
principle by various actors in the context of country-specific situations, such as Libya, Syria, Sudan and Kenya, for
example.[17][18][19][20][21][22] It has also been argued that commensurate with the responsibility to protect,
international law should also recognize a right for populations to offer militarily organized resistance to protect
themselves against genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes on a massive scale.[23]
1 Definition
1.1 The Scope of the Responsibility to Protect
1.2 Three Pillars of the Responsibility to Protect
1.3 The Responsibility to Protect and 'Humanitarian Intervention'
2 History of the Responsibility to Protect
2.1 1990s: Origins
2.2 2000: African Union proposes a right to intervene
2.3 2000: International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty
2.4 2005 World Summit Outcome Document
2.5 Secretary-General's 2009 report
2.6 Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect
3 United Nations
Contents

3.1 Security Council
3.2 Secretary-General reports
3.3 Special Advisors on the Prevention of Genocide and the Responsibility to Protect
4 In practice
4.1 Kenya 2007/2008
4.2 Ivory Coast 2011
4.3 Libya 2011
4.4 Central African Republic (CAR) 2013
4.4.1 CAR and the R2P
4.5 Syria
4.6 Burundi
4.7 Yemen
5 Praise for R2P
6 Criticism of R2P
6.1 Infringement of national sovereignty
6.2 Libya, 2011
6.3 Syria, 2011: Russian and Chinese repudiation of abuse of R2P
6.4 Military intervention
6.5 Structural Problems
7 See also
8 Further reading
9 References
9.1 Sources
10 External links
The Responsibility to Protect is a political commitment unanimously adopted by all members of the United Nations
General Assembly at the 2005 World Summit and articulated in paragraphs 138-139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome
Document:
138. Each individual State has the responsibility to protect its populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic
cleansing and crimes against humanity. This responsibility entails the prevention of such crimes, including
their incitement, through appropriate and necessary means. We accept that responsibility and will act in
accordance with it. The international community should, as appropriate, encourage and help States to
exercise this responsibility and support the United Nations in establishing an early warning capability.
Definition

139. The international community, through the United Nations, also has the responsibility to use
appropriate diplomatic, humanitarian and other peaceful means, in accordance with Chapters VI and VIII of
the Charter, to help protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against
humanity. In this context, we are prepared to take collective action, in a timely and decisive manner,
through the Security Council, in accordance with the Charter, including Chapter VII, on a case-by-case basis
and in cooperation with relevant regional organizations as appropriate, should peaceful means be
inadequate and national authorities manifestly fail to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes,
ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity. We stress the need for the General Assembly to continue
consideration of the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and
crimes against humanity and its implications, bearing in mind the principles of the Charter and
international law. We also intend to commit ourselves, as necessary and appropriate, to helping States build
capacity to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against
humanity and to assisting those which are under stress before crises and conflicts break out.
140. We fully support the mission of the Special Advisor of the Secretary-General on the Prevention of
Genocide.
The above paragraphs in the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document serve as the basis for the inter-governmental
agreement to the Responsibility to Protect. The General Assembly adopted the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document
in its resolution 60/1 of 2005.[24] The body subsequently committed to continue consideration of the Responsibility to
Protect with its Resolution A/Res/63/308 of October 2009.[25] The UN Security Council first reaffirmed the
Responsibility to Protect in Resolution 1674 (2006) on the protection of civilians in armed conflict, recalling in particular
paragraphs 138 and 139 of the Summit Outcome regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war
crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity.[26]
The report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, which first articulated the
Responsibility to Protect in its December 2001 Report, envisioned a wide scope of application in its articulation of the
principle, which included "overwhelming natural or environmental catastrophes, where the state concerned is either
unwilling or unable to cope, or call for assistance, and significant loss of life is occurring or threatened."[5]
Heads of State and Government at the 2005 World Summit refined the scope of the Responsibility to Protect to the four
crimes mentioned in paragraphs 138 and 139, namely genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against
humanity, which are commonly referred to as 'atrocity crimes' or 'mass atrocity crimes'.[8]
As per the Secretary-General's 2009 Report on the Responsibility to Protect, Implementing the Responsibility to Protect,
"The responsibility to protect applies, until Member States decide otherwise, only to the four specified crimes and
violations: genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity...To try to extend it to cover other
calamities, such as HIV/AIDS, climate change or the response to natural disasters, would undermine the 2005
consensus and stretch the concept beyond recognition or operational utility."[27]
The focused scope is part of what the UN Secretary-General has termed a "narrow but deep approach" to the
Responsibility to Protect: A narrow application to four crimes, but a deep approach to response, employing the wide array
of prevention and protection instruments available to Member States, the United Nations system, regional and
The Scope of the Responsibility to Protect

subregional organizations and civil society.[27]
The Responsibility to Protect consists of three important and mutually-reinforcing pillars, as articulated in the 2009
Report of the Secretary-General on the issue, and which build off of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit
Outcome Document and the intergovernmental agreement to the principle:
1. Pillar I: The protection responsibilities of the state;
2. Pillar II: International assistance and capacity-building;
3. Pillar III: Timely and decisive response.[27]
As seen in the 2005 World Outcome Document the UN Member States unanimously agreed to uphold their Responsibility
to Protect. Pillar I being the protection responsibilities of the state, paragraph 138 (see definition) states “Each individual
state has the responsibility to protect its population from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against
humanity”. Under Pillar I many countries are able to uphold these principles of preventing mass atrocity crimes. As Pillar
II leads on to international assistance and capacity-building. The international community is sent to help populations in
need before further crises break out. States who may be willing but are either incapable or too weak to uphold their
responsibility now may receive international support as a result of R2P. Pillar III is to deliver a timely and decisive
response. This movement is a prevention method for mass atrocity crimes when a state fails to protect its populations. In
reference to paragraph 139 “The international community, through the United Nations, also has the responsibility to use
appropriate diplomatic, humanitarian and other peaceful means, in accordance with Chapters VI and VIII of the [UN]
Charter, to help protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity”.[28][29]
According to the UN Secretary-General's 2012 report, the three pillars of the Responsibility to Protect are not sequential
and are of equal importance. "Without all three, the concept would be incomplete. All three pillars must be implemented
in a manner fully consistent with the purposes, principles, and provisions of the Charter."[13] The pillared approach is
intended to reinforce, not undermine state sovereignty. As per the 2009 report of the Secretary-General, "By helping
States to meet their core protection responsibilities, the responsibility to protect seeks to strengthen sovereignty, not
weaken it. It seeks to help States to succeed, not just to react when they fail."[27]
The Responsibility to Protect differs from humanitarian intervention in four important ways. First, humanitarian
intervention only refers to the use of military force, whereas R2P is first and foremost a preventive principle that
emphasizes a range of measures to stem the risk of genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing or crimes against humanity
before the crimes are threatened or occur. The use of force may only carried out as a measure last resort, when all other
non-coercive measures have failed, and only when it is authorized by the UN Security Council.[30] This is in contrast to
the principle of 'humanitarian intervention', which allows for the use of force as a humanitarian imperative without the
authorization of such bodies like the Security Council.
The second point relates to the first. As a principle, the Responsibility to Protect is rooted firmly in existing international
law, especially the law relating to sovereignty, peace and security, human rights, and armed conflict.[31]
Third, while humanitarian interventions have in the past been justified in the context of varying situations, R2P focuses
only on the four mass atrocity crimes: genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity. The first three
crimes are clearly defined in international law and codified in the Rome Statute (http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/EA
9AEFF7-5752-4F84-BE94-0A655EB30E16/0/Rome_Statute_English.pdf) that established the International Criminal
Three Pillars of the Responsibility to Protect
The Responsibility to Protect and 'Humanitarian Intervention'

Court. Ethnic cleansing is not a crime defined under international law, but has been defined by the UN as "a purposeful
policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of
another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas".[32]
Finally, while humanitarian intervention assumes a "right to intervene", the R2P is based on a "responsibility to
protect".[30] Humanitarian intervention and the R2P both agree on the fact that sovereignty is not absolute. However, the
R2P doctrine shifts away from state-centered motivations to the interests of victims by focusing not on the right of states
to intervene but on a responsibility to protect populations at risk.[33] In addition, it introduces a new way of looking at the
essence of sovereignty, moving away from issues of "control" and emphasising "responsibility" to one's own citizens and
the wider international community.[34]
The norm of the R2P was borne out of the international community's failure to respond to tragedies such as the Rwandan
Genocide in 1994 and the Srebrenica massacre in 1995. Kofi Annan, who was Assistant Secretary-General at the UN
Department for Peacekeeping Operations during the Rwandan genocide,[35] realized the international community's
failure to respond. In the wake of the Kosovo intervention, 1999, Annan insisted that traditional notions of sovereignty
had been redefined: “States are now widely understood to be instruments at the service of their peoples”,[36] he said,
while U.S. President Bill Clinton cited human rights concerns in 46% of the hundreds of remarks that he made justifying
intervention in Kosovo. [37] In 2000, and in his capacity as UN Secretary-General, Annan wrote the report "We the
Peoples" on the role of the United Nations in the 21st Century, and in this report he posed the following question: "if
humanitarian intervention is, indeed, an unacceptable assault on sovereignty, how should we respond to a Rwanda, to a
Srebrenica – to gross and systematic violations of human rights that offend every precept of our common humanity?"[38]
Many critics of the R2P's third pillar claim that R2P is a Western concept, but it was the African Union (AU) that
pioneered the concept that the international community has a responsibility to intervene in crisis situations if a state is
failing to protect its population from mass atrocity crimes.[39] In 2000, the AU incorporated the right to intervene in a
member state, as enshrined in Article 4(h) of its Constitutive Act, which declares "[t]he right of the Union to intervene in a
Member State pursuant to a decision of the Assembly in respect of grave circumstances, namely war crimes, genocide and
crimes against humanity".[40] The AU also adopted the Ezulwini Consensus in 2005, which welcomed R2P as a tool for
the prevention of mass atrocities.[41]
In September 2000, the Canadian government established the International Commission on Intervention and State
Sovereignty (ICISS) to answer Annan's question "if humanitarian intervention is, indeed, an unacceptable assault on
sovereignty, how should we respond to a Rwanda, to a Srebrenica – to gross and systematic violations of human rights
that affect every precept of our common humanity?" In February 2001, at the third round table meeting of the ICISS in
London, Gareth Evans, Mohamed Sahnoun, and Michael Ignatieff suggested the phrase "responsibility to protect" as a
way to avoid the "right to intervene" or "obligation to intervene" doctrines and yet keep a degree of duty to act to resolve
humanitarian crises.[42]
History of the Responsibility to Protect
1990s: Origins
2000: African Union proposes a right to intervene
2000: International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty

In 2001, ICISS released a report titled "The Responsibility to Protect" (http://responsibilitytoprotect.org/ICISS%20Repor
t.pdf). In a radical reformulation of the meaning of state sovereignty, the report argued that sovereignty entailed not only
rights but also responsibilities, specifically a state's responsibility to protect its people from major violations of human
rights. This idea rested on earlier work by Francis Deng and Roberta Cohen regarding internally displaced persons.[43]
Inspiration may also be attributed to Jan Eliasson, who in response to a questionnaire on internally displaced persons
distributed by Francis Deng, stated that assisting populations at risk within their own country was "basically a question of
striking a balance between sovereignty and solidarity with people in need."[44] The ICISS report further asserted that,
where a state was "unable or unwilling" to protect its people, the responsibility should shift to the international
community and "the principle of non-intervention yields to the international responsibility to protect." The ICISS argued
that any form of military intervention is "an exceptional and extraordinary measure", and, as such, to be justified it must
meet certain criteria, including:[45]
Just cause: There must be "serious and irreparable harm occurring to human beings, or imminently likely to occur".
Right intention: The main intention of the military action must be to prevent human suffering.
Last resort: Every other measure besides military invention has to have already been taken into account. (This does
not mean that every measurement has to have been applied and been shown to fail, but that there are reasonable
grounds to believe that only military action would work in that situation.)
Proportional means: The military means must not exceed what is necessary "to secure the defined human
protection objective".
Reasonable prospects: The chance of success must be reasonably high, and it must be unlikely that the
consequences of the military intervention would be worse than the consequences without the intervention.
Right authority: The military action has to have been authorized by the Security Council.
As the ICISS report was released in 2001, right around the time of the Second Gulf War, many thought that would be the
end of this new norm. However, at the 2005 World Summit, where the largest number of heads of state and government in
the history of the UN convened, the R2P was unanimously adopted.[46] While the outcome was close to the ideas of the
ICISS report, there were some notable differences: the R2P would now only apply to mass atrocity crimes (genocide, war
crimes, crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing), rather than human rights violations; no mention was made of the
criteria of intervention (see above); and the UN Security Council was made the only body allowed to authorize
intervention. The paragraphs also stress the importance of regional organizations and the role they can play through
Chapter VIII of the UN Charter.
The results of this summit led to world leaders agreeing on holding each other accountable if they fail to uphold the new
responsibilities. Decidedly if one state fails to uphold their responsibility this is now where State Sovereignty may be
broken in order to protect people in danger of such crimes. First peaceful action is to be taken through humanitarian,
diplomatic, or other means. If these fail to resolve the matter, the international community should come together in a
“timely and decisive manner”. This shall all be worked on a case-by-case basis through the UN Security Council as well as
the UN Charter.[47]
2005 World Summit Outcome Document
Secretary-General's 2009 report

On 12 January 2009, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon issued a report entitled Implementing the Responsibility to
Protect (http://responsibilitytoprotect.org/implementing%20the%20rtop.pdf). The report was the first comprehensive
document from the UN Secretariat on the R2P, following Ban's stated commitment to turn the concept into policy. The
Secretary-General's report set the tone and the direction for the discussion on the subject at the UN. The report proposes
three-pillar approach to the R2P:
Pillar One stresses that states have the primary responsibility to protect their populations from genocide, war
crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity.
Pillar Two addresses the international community's commitment to help states build capacity to protect their
populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity, and to help those under
stress before crises and conflicts break out.
Pillar Three focuses on the responsibility of international community to act in a timely and decisive way to prevent
and halt genocide, ethnic cleansing, war crimes, and crimes against humanity when a state manifestly fails to
protect its populations.
The Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect (GCR2P) is an international non-governmental organization that
conducts research and advocacy for the Responsibility to protect. The Centre is based at the Graduate Center, CUNY, New
York City with an office also located in Geneva.[48]
At the 2005 World Summit, UN member states included R2P in the Outcome Document agreeing to Paragraphs 138 and
139. These paragraphs gave final language to the scope of R2P. It applies to the four mass atrocities crimes only. It also
identifies to whom the R2P protocol applies; i.e., nations first, and regional and international communities second.
Paragraphs 138 and 139 state:
138. Each individual State has the responsibility to protect its populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic
cleansing and crimes against humanity. This responsibility entails the prevention of such crimes, including
their incitement, through appropriate and necessary means. We accept that responsibility and will act in
accordance with it. The international community should, as appropriate, encourage and help States to
exercise this responsibility and support the United Nations in establishing an early warning capability.
139. The international community, through the United Nations, also has the responsibility to use
appropriate diplomatic, humanitarian and other peaceful means, in accordance with Chapters VI and VIII of
the Charter, to help protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against
humanity. In this context, we are prepared to take collective action, in a timely and decisive manner,
through the Security Council, in accordance with the Charter, including Chapter VII, on a case-by-case basis
and in cooperation with relevant regional organizations as appropriate, should peaceful means be
inadequate and national authorities manifestly fail to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes,
ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity. We stress the need for the General Assembly to continue
consideration of the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and
crimes against humanity and its implications, bearing in mind the principles of the Charter and
Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect
United Nations

international law. We also intend to commit ourselves, as necessary and appropriate, to helping States build
capacity to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against
humanity and to assisting those under stress before crises and conflicts break out.[49]
Since then, the UN has been actively engaged with the development of the R2P. Several resolutions, reports, and debates
have emerged through the UN forum.
The Security Council has reaffirmed its commitment to the R2P in several resolutions. The first such resolution came in
April 2006, when the Security Council reaffirmed the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 in Resolution 1674 (https://w
ww.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1674(2006)), formalizing their support for the R2P. In 2009, the
Council again recognized states' primary responsibility to protect and reaffirmed paragraphs 138 and 139 in resolution
1894 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1894(2009)).
Additionally, the Security Council has mentioned the R2P in several country-specific resolutions:
Darfur: Resolution 1706 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1706(2006)) in 2006
Libya: Resolution 1970 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1970(2011)), Resolution
1973 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1973(2011)) in 2011, Resolution 2016 (http
s://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2016(2011)) in 2011, and Resolution 2040 (https://ww
w.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2040(2012)) in 2012
Côte d'Ivoire: Resolution 1975 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1975(2011)) in
2011
Yemen: Resolution 2014 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2014(2011)) in 2011
Mali: Resolution 2085 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2085(2012)) in 2012 and
Resolution 2100 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2100(2013)) in 2013
Sudan and South Sudan: Resolution 1996 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1996(20
11)) in 2011 and Resolution 2121 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2109(2013)) in
2013
In January 2009, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon released UN Secretariat's first comprehensive report on the R2P,
called Implementing the Responsibility to Protect
(http://responsibilitytoprotect.org/implementing%20the%20rtop.pdf).[50] His report led to a debate in the General
Assembly in July 2009 and the first time since 2005 that the General Assembly had come together to discuss the R2P.
Ninety-four member states spoke. Most supported the R2P principle, although some important concerns were voiced.
They discussed how to implement the R2P in crisis situations around the world. The debate highlighted the need for
regional organizations like the African Union to play a strong role in implementing R2P; the need for stronger early
warning mechanisms in the UN; and the need to clarify the roles UN bodies would play in implementing R2P.[51][52]
One outcome of the debate was the first resolution referencing R2P adopted by the General Assembly. The Resolution
(A/RES/63/308) showed that the international community had not forgotten about the concept of the R2P and it decided
"to continue its consideration of the responsibility to protect".[53]
Security Council
Secretary-General reports

In subsequent years, the Secretary-General would release a new report, followed by another debate in the General
Assembly.
In 2010, the report was titled Early Warning, Assessment and the Responsibility to Protect (http://www.globalr2p.org/m
edia/files/2010_a64864.pdf). The informal interactive dialogue was held on 9 August 2010, with 49 member states, two
regional organizations, and two civil society organizations speaking at the event. The discussion had a resoundingly
positive tone, with virtually all of those that spoke stressing a need to prevent atrocities and agreeing that effective early
warning is a necessary condition for effective prevention and early action. Objections were expressed by a small number of
member states; namely Nicaragua, Iran, Pakistan, Sudan, and Venezuela.[54][55]
In 2011, the report analyzed The Role of Regional and Subregional Arrangements in Implementing the Responsibility to
Protect (http://www.globalr2p.org/media/files/2011_a65877.pdf). At the debate on 12 July 2011, statements were made
by 43 member states, three regional organizations, and four civil society representatives. The biggest challenge to R2P was
considered cooperation with, and support between, the UN and regional bodies in times of crisis. Member states
acknowledged the importance of resolving this challenge through the unique advantages regional organizations possess in
preventing and reacting to mass atrocities.[56][57]
In 2012, the focus was on Responsibility to Protect: Timely and Decisive Response (http://www.globalr2p.org/media/file
s/unsg-report_timely-and-decisive-response.pdf). The debate followed on 5 September 2012 saw interventions address
the third pillar of the R2P and the diversity of non-coercive and coercive measures available for a collective response to
mass atrocity crimes.[58]
In 2013, the Secretary-General focused on Responsibility to Protect: State responsibility and prevention (http://www.glo
balr2p.org/media/files/n1338693.pdf). The debate following the report was held on 11 September 2013. A panel of UN,
member state, and civil society experts delivered presentations, after which 68 member states, 1 regional organization, and
2 civil society organizations made statements.[59][60]
In 2004, following the genocidal violence in Rwanda and the Balkans, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed Juan
E. Méndez as Special Adviser to fill critical gaps in the international system that allowed those tragedies to go unchecked.
In 2007, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon appointed Francis M. Deng on a full-time basis at the level of Under-Secretary-
General. Around the same time, he also appointed Edward Luck as the Special Adviser who focuses on the R2P, on a part-
time basis at the level of Assistant Secretary-General.[61]
The Special Adviser on the Responsibility to Protect leads the conceptual, political, institutional, and operational
development of the R2P. The Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide acts as a catalyst to raise awareness of the
causes and dynamics of genocide, to alert relevant actors where there is a risk of genocide, and to advocate and mobilize
for appropriate action. The mandates of the two Special Advisers are distinct but complementary. The efforts of their
Office include alerting relevant actors to the risk of genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity;
enhancing the capacity of the UN to prevent these crimes, including their incitement; and working with member states,
regional and sub-regional arrangements, and civil society to develop more effective means of response when they do
occur.[61]
Both Special Advisers Deng and Luck ended their assignments with the Office in July 2012. On 17 July 2012, Secretary-
General Ban Ki-moon appointed Adama Dieng of Senegal as his Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide.[61] On 12
July 2013, Jennifer Welsh of Canada was appointed as the Special Advisor on the Responsibility to Protect.[62]
Special Advisors on the Prevention of Genocide and the Responsibility to Protect

From December 2007 to January 2008, Kenya was swept by a wave of ethnic violence triggered by a disputed presidential
election held on 27 December 2007. On 30 December 2007, Mwai Kibaki was declared the winner of the presidential
elections and was sworn in as president a couple of hours later. The announcement of the results triggered widespread and
systematic violence resulting in more than 1,000 deaths and the displacement of over 500,000 civilians. Clashes were
characterized by the ethnically targeted killings of people aligned with the two major political parties, the Orange
Democratic Movement (ODM) and the Party of National Unity (PNU).[63]
External intervention was almost immediate. French Foreign and European Affairs Minister Bernard Kouchner made an
appeal to the UN Security Council in January 2008 to react "in the name of the responsibility to protect" before Kenya
plunged into a deadly ethnic conflict. On 31 December 2007, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon issued a statement
expressing concern for the ongoing violence and calling for the population to remain calm and for Kenyan security forces
to show restraint. On 10 January 2008, former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan was accepted by both the ODM and the
PNU as the African Union Chief Mediator. Mediation efforts led to the signing of a power-sharing agreement on 28
February 2008. The agreement established Mwai Kibaki as President and Raila Odinga as Prime Minister, as well as the
creation of three commissions: the Commission of Inquiry on Post-Election Violence (CIPEV); the Truth, Justice and
Reconciliation Commission; and the Independent Review Commission on the General Elections. This rapid and
coordinated reaction by the international community was praised by Human Rights Watch as "a model of diplomatic
action under the 'Responsibility to Protect' principles".[64]
On 30 March 2011, in response to the escalating post-election violence against the population of Ivory Coast in late 2010
and early 2011, the Security Council unanimously adopted resolution 1975 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.a
sp?symbol=S/RES/1975(2011)) condemning the gross human rights violations committed by supporters of both ex-
President Laurent Gbagbo and President Ouattara. The resolution cited "the primary responsibility of each State to protect
civilians", called for the immediate transfer of power to President Ouattara, the victor in the elections, and reaffirmed that
the United Nations Operation in Ivory Coast (UNOCI) could use "all necessary means to protect life and property." On 4
April 2011, in an effort to protect the people of Ivory Coast from further atrocities, UNOCI began a military operation,[65]
and President Gbagbo's hold on power ended on 11 April when he was arrested by President Ouattara's forces. In
November 2011, President Gbagbo was transferred to the International Criminal Court to face charges of crimes against
humanity as an "indirect co-perpetrator" of murder, rape, persecution, and other inhumane acts.[66] On 26 July 2012, the
Council adopted resolution 2062 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2062(2012))
renewing the mandate of UNOCI until 31 July 2013.
Libya was the first case where the Security Council authorized a military intervention citing the R2P. Following
widespread and systematic attacks against the civilian population by the Libyan regime, and language used by Muammar
Gaddafi that reminded the international community of the genocide in Rwanda, the Security Council unanimously
adopted resolution 1970 on 26 February 2011, making explicit reference to the R2P. Deploring what it called "the gross
and systematic violation of human rights" in strife-torn Libya, the Security Council demanded an end to the violence,
In practice
Kenya 2007/2008
Ivory Coast 2011
Libya 2011

"recalling the Libyan authorities' responsibility to protect its population", and
imposed a series of international sanctions. The Council also decided to refer
the situation to the International Criminal Court.
In resolution 1973, adopted on 17 March 2011, the Security Council
demanded an immediate ceasefire in Libya, including an end to ongoing
attacks against civilians, which it said might constitute "crimes against
humanity". The Council authorized member states to take "all necessary
measures" to protect civilians under threat of attack in the country, while
excluding a foreign occupation force of any form on any part of Libyan
territory. A few days later, acting on the resolution, NATO planes started
striking at Gaddafi's forces.[67] NATO subsequently came under scrutiny for
its behavior during the air strikes; concerns included the fact that the
intervention quickly moved to regime-change and that there were allegations regarding aerial bombardments that may
have caused civilian casualties.[68]
In December 2012, a loose rebel coalition named the Séléka initiated a military campaign to overthrow the government of
the Central African Republic (CAR) and its then-president, Francois Bozizé. The Séléka, composed mostly of factions of
armed groups in the northeast of the state, accused Bozizé's government of neglecting their region. They rapidly captured
several strategic towns and were poised to take the capital city of Bangui. A hasty intervention by Chad and the Economic
Community of Central African States (ECCAS) persuaded the Séléka to negotiate with Bozizé's government. The result, the
Libreville Agreement of January 2013, installed a three-year power-sharing arrangement.[69]
However, ECCAS failed to monitor the implementation of the Libreville Agreement and Bozizé did not undertake any of
the reforms necessary under the transition agreement. Séléka resurged and took control of Bangui and fifteen of CAR's
sixteen provinces on 24 March 2013. Séléka's leader, Michel Djotodia, proclaimed himself President, set up the National
Transitional Council (NTC), and suspended CAR's constitution. A hurried ECCAS summit on 4 April 2013, which did not
yet recognize Djotodia as President, called for the creation of a Transitional National Council (TNC), which would create a
new constitution, conduct elections in eighteen months, and select an interim President. On 13 April, the TNC chose the
sole candidate vying for interim president position, Michel Djotodia.[69]
From December 2012 onward, Séléka forces, who are predominantly Muslim, committed grave human rights abuses
against civilians throughout the country and especially targeted the majority Christian population. In response, Christian
civilians formed "anti-balaka" ("anti-machete") militias, which have conducted vicious reprisals against Muslims.
Extrajudicial killings of Muslim and Christian civilians have been carried out, including "door to door" searches by rival
militias and mobs seeking potential victims.[70]
The situation in CAR rapidly deteriorated after 5 December 2013, after an attack in Bangui by anti-balaka militias and
loyalists of ousted President François Bozizé. The attack against former Séléka rebels sparked widespread violence
throughout the capital as well as in Ouham province in the northwest. The violence marked a significant escalation of the
conflict in CAR. Anti-balaka forces launched another attack against Muslim neighborhoods of Bangui on 20 December,
spurring a cycle of renewed violence that led to at least 71 deaths by 24 December. A mass grave of at least 30 people who
were reportedly executed and exhibited signs of torture was discovered on 25 December. The UN Office for the
President Barack Obama speaking
on the military intervention in Libya
at the National Defense University.
Central African Republic (CAR) 2013

Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) estimates a further 40 civilians were killed on 25 December as violence
continued between anti-balaka and ex-Séléka forces. Eight African Union (AU) peacekeepers were also killed between 25
and 26 December.[71]
According to OCHA, by September 2013 there were almost 400,000 internally displaced people and about 65,000 new
refugees in neighbouring countries. Humanitarian agencies have alerted public opinion to the critical situation, stressing
that 2.3 million CAR citizens (half the population) are in need of humanitarian assistance.[72]
The crisis in the CAR is a case for the R2P, due to mass atrocity crimes being committed by both sides.[73] During a
Security Council briefing on 25 November, UN Deputy-Secretary-General Jan Eliasson said that the world faced "a
profoundly important test of international solidarity and of our responsibility to protect" in CAR. The Security Council
passed Resolution 2127 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2127(2013)) on 5 December,
emphasizing that the NTC has the primary responsibility to protect the civilian population in CAR. The resolution granted
a Chapter VII mandate to AU and French forces to protect civilians and restore security, imposed an arms embargo, and
established a UN Commission of Inquiry.[71]
In the beginning, the international response to the coup was purely diplomatic: members of the International Contact
Group insisted that Michel Djotodia respect the principles set out in the Libreville agreement. The African Union was the
first to react when it announced a new African-led International Support Mission for CAR (MISCA) in July 2013.
However, MISCA has not been effective in reversing the deteriorating security situation. Although its mandate is well-
defined, there is general agreement that it does not have the resources to fulfill its mission. The UN General Assembly put
CAR on the international agenda in September. Resolution 2121 (https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbo
l=S/RES/2121(2013)), adopted on 10 October 2013 and sponsored by France, strengthened and broadened the mandate of
the UN Integrated Peacebuilding Office in the Central African Republic (BINUCA). Aware that MISCA alone is unable to
adequately tackle the growing insecurity, France has changed its initial position from disengagement to military
contribution, as announced by François Hollande on 20 November 2013, who said that French forces would be reinforced
by almost 1,000 troops for a six-month period.[72] France began to deploy troops in CAR after receiving authorization
from the Security Council on 5 December 2013 with Resolution 2127, which authorizes MISCA and French forces to take
"all necessary measures" to protect civilians and restore security in CAR. French soldiers immediately began to patrol in
Bangui.[71]
On 7 February 2014, it was reported that the International Criminal Court's chief prosecutor Fatou Bensouda said that she
had "opened a preliminary investigation into possible war crimes in the Central African Republic".[74]
Over the last five years, Syria has been in constant conflict, which has led to the death of over 270,000 people, 4.8 million
refugees, and over 6.6 million internally displaced persons. To help stop these atrocities International Syria Support
Group (ISSG), the UN, European Union and the league of Arab states as well as other countries, had agreed to meet to
discuss the situation at stake. The conclusion was made that the full implementation of UN Security Council Resolution
2254, which increased the delivery of humanitarian aid, as well as a nationwide cessation of hostilities, was required in
order to help those in need. Syrian government while working with allied militias has committed large-scale massacres,
perpetrated war crimes and gross violations of international humanitarian law, as a matter of state policy. After Syria’s
Commission of Inquiry's third report had stated that the government had committed the crimes against humanity through
extermination, murder, rape and other forms of sexual violence, torture, imprisonment and enforced disappearance and
CAR and the R2P
Syria

other inhuman acts. Due to this statement the UN Human Rights Council has adopted at least 16 different resolutions with
regard to the atrocities taking place in Syria. Despite all efforts and resolutions adopted to help uphold Right To Protect,
humanitarian aid has had limited success in reaching the affected populations. The Syrian government is responsible for
the well being of its people.[75]
The country of Burundi is at grave risk for a possible civil war, if violence is not stopped. The civilians of Burundi face the
serious and eminent risk of mass atrocities due to the ongoing political violence that threatens the stability of Burundi.
The citizens of Burundi are being harmed through mass atrocity crimes due to targeted killings, widespread violations and
abuses of human rights. Violence had increased after President Pierre Nkurnziza had announced he was seeking a third
term in the country’s elections. Violence had increased due to President Nkurnziza instructing his citizens to disarm or
face action by Burundian Security forces and be labeled enemies of the nation. Office of high commissioner for human
rights reports cases of sexual violence by security forces, hate speech and incitement to violence by some government
officials. In order for this country to become stable again it is crucial for the country to uphold its R2P, as well as make
peace-building gains.[76]
With the current armed conflict in Yemen, many civilians are left to face mass atrocity crimes. These crimes are a result of
the violence between pro-government forces and regional military as the fight against the Houthi rebels. The Houthi
rebels and pro-Saleh currently control a majority of Yemen, including the capital Sana’a. In addition to the violence
between these groups the nation also been seeing Saudi-led air strikes for months. This has resulted in over 3,200 civilian
deaths since March 2015. The violence has also led to 2.4 million Yemeni civilians being forcibly displaced leaving 82
percent, equivalent to 21.2 million of its people requiring humanitarian assistance. Without exception of the government
allied forces, the nation has also seen civilian infrastructure and humanitarian workers being targeted. All of the violence
being displayed has led to many other armed groups taking advantage of the unsettlement of the nation. With this being
said Yemen is currently unable to uphold its responsibility to protect and is in need of other member states support.[77]
Anne-Marie Slaughter from Princeton University has called R2P "the most important shift in our conception of
sovereignty since the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648."[78]
Louise Arbour from the International Crisis Group said that "The responsibility to protect is the most important and
imaginative doctrine to emerge on the international scene for decades."[79]
Francis Deng, former UN Special Advisor on the Prevention of Genocide, stated that "R2P is one of the most powerful and
promising innovations on the international scene."[79]
Political scientist Alex Bellamy argues (i) that there is evidence of behavioral change in the way international society
responds to mass killing and (ii) that R2P considerations have influenced behavior.[80] On the first point, Bellamy argues
that criticism of R2P as insufficient change is driven by a small subset of cases (Darfur, Libya and Syria) that are not
indicative of strong trends. On the second point, Bellamy finds that R2P language is used in UNSC deliberations and in the
rhetoric of world leaders.
Burundi
Yemen
Praise for R2P
Criticism of R2P

R2P and certain implementations of it have come under criticism by some states and individuals.
One of the main concerns surrounding R2P is that it infringes upon national sovereignty.[81] This concern is rebutted by
the Secretary General Ban Ki-moon in the report Implementing the Responsibility to Protect. According to the first pillar
of R2P, the state has the responsibility to protect its populations from mass atrocities and ethnic cleansing, and according
to the second pillar the international community has the responsibility to help states fulfill their responsibility. Advocates
of R2P claim that the only occasions where the international community will intervene in a state without its consent is
when the state is either allowing mass atrocities to occur, or is committing them, in which case the state is no longer
upholding its responsibilities as a sovereign. In this sense, R2P can be understood as reinforcing sovereignty.[82] In 2004,
the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, set up by Secretary-General Kofi Annan, endorsed the emerging
norm of R2P, stating that there is a collective international responsibility "...exercisable by the Security Council
authorizing military intervention as a last resort, in the event of genocide and other large-scale killing, ethnic cleansing,
and serious violations of humanitarian law which sovereign governments have proved powerless or unwilling to
prevent."[67]
On March 19, 2011, the Security Council approved Resolution 1973, which reiterated the responsibility of the Libyan
authorities to protect the Libyan population. The UNSC resolution reaffirmed "that parties to armed conflicts bear the
primary responsibility to take all feasible steps to ensure the protection of civilians."[83] It demanded "an immediate
ceasefire in Libya, including an end to the current attacks against civilians, which it said might constitute 'crimes against
humanity'.... It imposed a ban on all flights in the country's airspace, a no-fly zone, and tightened sanctions on the Gadaffi
regime and its supporters."[83] The resolution passed, with 10 in favor, 0 against, and 5 abstentions. Two of the five
abstentions were China and Russia, both of which are permanent members of the Security Council.[83][84] The
subsequent military action by NATO resulted in mixed opinions. Detractors of the intervention believe that problems in
Libya are best resolved by Libyans.
India's UN Ambassador Hardeep Singh Puri stated that "the Libyan case has already given R2P a bad name" and that "the
only aspect of the resolution of interest to them (international community) was use of all necessary means to bomb the
hell out of Libya". Puri also alleged that civilians had been supplied with arms and that the no-fly zone had been
implemented only selectively.[85]
Critics in the media also suggested that R2P-based intervention in Libya was used as a means to carry out regime-change,
extending and undermining the purpose of the doctrine. While the doctrine was initially invoked to protect against
government reprisals in rebel-held Benghazi, the resulting operation grew in scope to support the total overthrow of the
government. Critics feel this experience has yielded global skepticism concerning proposed UN intervention in Syria the
same year, putting the future of R2P in question. [86]
Several attempts were made by the U.S. government in the course of 2011 to 2013 to pass Security Council resolutions
invoking R2P to justify military intervention in the Syrian Civil War. These were vetoed by Russia and China. The Russian
and Chinese governments both issued statements to the effect that, in their opinion, R2P had been abused by the U.S. as a
Infringement of national sovereignty
Libya, 2011
Syria, 2011: Russian and Chinese repudiation of abuse of R2P

pretext for "regime change", more particularly in the case of Libya, and that as far as they were concerned they would be
extremely suspicious of any future Security Council resolutions invoking R2P, based on past experience. According to the
UN's own 4 October 2011 coverage of the meeting of the Security Council:
[Russia's UN Ambassador Vitaly Churkin] was alarmed that compliance with Security Council resolutions in
Libya had been considered a model for future actions by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). It
was important to see how that model had been implemented. The demand for a ceasefire had turned into a
civil war, the humanitarian, social and military consequences of which had spilled beyond Libya. The arms
embargo had turned into a naval blockade on west Libya. Such models should be excluded from global
practice.
[…] [China's UN Ambassador Li Baodong] hoped that the [Syrian] Government would follow through on
reform and a process of dialogue. The Council should encourage those objectives while respecting Syria's
sovereignty's [sic] and territorial integrity. Any action it took should contribute to peace and stability and
comply with the United Nations Charter principles of non-interference in internal affairs.[87]
The question of military intervention under the third pillar of R2P remains controversial.[88] Several states have argued
that R2P should not allow the international community to intervene militarily on states, because to do so is an
infringement upon sovereignty. Others argue that this is a necessary facet of R2P, and is necessary as a last resort to stop
mass atrocities. A related argument surrounds the question as to whether more specific criteria should be developed to
determine when the Security Council should authorize military intervention.[89]
Political scientist Roland Paris, a proponent of R2P, argues that several problems regarding usefulness and legitimacy
inherent to R2P make it vulnerable to criticism: "the more R2P is employed as a basis for military action, the more likely it
is to be discredited, but paradoxically, the same will hold true if R2P’s coercive tools go unused."[90] Paris lists the
following problems as inherent to R2P, making it difficult for proponents of R2P to defend R2P and emboldening
critics:[90]
The mixed-motives problem - The legitimacy of R2P rests upon its altruistic aim. However, states will often be
wary to engage in humanitarian intervention unless the intervention is partly rooted in self-interest. The appearance
that the intervention is not strictly altruistic consequently leads some to question its legitimacy.
The counterfactual problem - When R2P is successful, there will not be any clear-cut evidence of its success: a
mass atrocity that did not occur but would have occurred without intervention. Defenders of R2P consequently have
to rely on counterfactual arguments.
The conspicuous harm problem - While the benefits of the intervention will not be clearly visible, the
destructiveness and costs of the intervention will be visible. This makes it more difficult for proponents of the
intervention to defend the intervention. The destruction caused by the intervention also makes some question the
legitimacy of the intervention due to the stated purpose of preventing harm.
Military intervention
Structural Problems

The end-state problem - Humanitarian intervention is prone to expand the mission beyond simply averting mass
atrocities. When successful at averting mass atrocities, the intervenors will often be forced to take upon themselves
more expansive mandates to ensure that threatened populations will be safe after the intervenors leave.
The inconsistency problem - Due to the aforementioned problems, in addition to the belief that a particular military
action is likely to cause more harm than good, states may fail to act in situations where mass atrocities loom. The
failure to intervene in any and all situations where there is a risk of mass atrocities lead to charges of inconsistency.
Sovereignty
Human rights
Human security
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
United Nations
International Criminal Court
Rwandan Genocide
Srebrenica Genocide
Peacekeeping
Orford, Anne. International Authority and Responsibility to Protect. Cambridge University Press. 2011.
Global Responsibility to Protect (http://www.brill.com/global-responsibility-protect)
Judson, A. M. Where is R2P grounded in international law (http://otago.ourarchive.ac.nz/handle/10523/2279),
Otago University, 2012.
Baylis and Smith, The Globalization of World Politics, Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 394
Deng, Francis, Rothchild, Donald, et al. "Sovereignty as Responsibility Conflict Management in Africa". (Washington
DC: Brookings Institution Press, September 1996). c. 290pp.
Downes, Paul. Melville's Benito Cereno and Humanitarian Intervention South Atlantic Quarterly. 103.2–3.
Spring/Summer 2004, pp. 465–488.
Evans, Gareth. The Responsibility to Protect: Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and For All. (Washington DC:
Brookings Institution Press, September 2008)
Evans, Gareth and Mohamed Sahnoun. "The Responsibility to Protect" Foreign Affairs. November/December 2002.
Hehir, Aidan. "The Responsibility to Protect: Sound and Fury Signifying Nothing?" International Relations. 24/2
2010.
Gallagher, Adrian. 'A Clash of Responsibilities: Engaging with Realist Critiques of the R2P', Global Responsibility to
Protect, vol. 4, no. 3, 2012, 334–357.
See also
Further reading

Köchler, Hans, Humanitarian Intervention in the Context of Modern Power Politics. Is the Revival of the Doctrine of
"Just War" Compatible with the International Rule of Law? (Studies in International Relations, XXVI.) Vienna:
International Progress Organization, 2001.
Axworthy, Lloyd; Rock, Allan (2009). "R2P: A New and Unfinished Agenda". Global Responsibility to Protect. 1 (1):
54–69. doi:10.1163/187598409x405479 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F187598409x405479).
Bazirake, Joseph Besigye; Bukuluki, Paul (2015). "'A critical reflection on the conceptual and practical limitations of
the Responsibility to Protect'". The International Journal of Human Rights. 19 (8): 1017–1028.
doi:10.1080/13642987.2015.1082844 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13642987.2015.1082844).
Bellamy, Alex J (2006). "'Whither the Responsibility to Protect: Humanitarian Intervention and the 2005 World
Summit'". Ethics and International Affairs. 20 (2): 143–177. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7093.2006.00012.x (https://doi.or
g/10.1111%2Fj.1747-7093.2006.00012.x).
Bellamy, A. J. (2008). "'Conflict prevention and the responsibility to protect'". Global Governance. 14 (2): 135–156.
Bellamy, Alex J (2008). "'The Responsibility to Protect and the problem of military intervention'". International
Affairs. 84 (4): 615–639. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2008.00729.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2346.2008.00
729.x).
Bellamy, A. J. (2009). "'Realizing the Responsibility to Protect'". International Studies Perspectives. 10 (2): 111–
128. doi:10.1111/j.1528-3585.2009.00365.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1528-3585.2009.00365.x).
Bellamy, Alex J. 2009. Responsibility to Protect: The Global Effort to End Mass Atrocities, Cambridge: Polity.
Bellamy, A. J. (2010). "'The responsibility to protect and Australian foreign policy'". Australian Journal of
International Affairs. 64 (4): 432–448. doi:10.1080/10357710903544106 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10357710903
544106).
Bellamy, Alex J (2010). "The Responsibility to Protect: Five Years On". Ethics and International Affairs. 24 (2): 143–
169. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7093.2010.00254.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1747-7093.2010.00254.x).
Bellamy, Alex J. 2011. Global politics and the responsibility to protect: from words to deeds. Abingdon: Routledge.
Bellamy, Alex J.; Davies, Sara E. (2009). "'The Responsibility to Protect in the Asia-Pacific Region'". Security
Dialogue. 40 (6): 547–574. doi:10.1177/0967010609349907 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0967010609349907).
Breau, Susan C (2006). "The Impact of the Responsibility to Protect on Peacekeeping". Journal of Conflict &
Security Law. 11 (3): 429–64. doi:10.1093/jcsl/krl022 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjcsl%2Fkrl022).
Briggs, E. Donald, Walter C. Soderlund and Abdel Salam Sidahmed. 2010. The responsibility to protect in Darfur:
the Role of Mass Media. Lanham: Lexington Books.
Chandler, David. 2005. ‘The Responsibility to Protect: Imposing the Liberal Peace’. In Peace Operations and Global
Order, eds Alex J. Bellamy and Paul D. Williams. London: Routledge.
Chataway, Teresa (2007). "'Towards normative consensus on responsibility to protect'". Griffith Law Review. 16
(1): 193–224. doi:10.1080/10383441.2007.10854588 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10383441.2007.10854588).
Dallaire, Romeo (2005). "'The Responsibility to Protect'". New England Journal of Public Policy. 19: 2.
Contessi, Nicola P. "Multilateralism, intervention and norm contestation: China’s stance on Darfur in the UN security
council." Security Dialogue 41, 3 (2010): 323-344.
Davies, Sara, Alex J. Bellamy and Luke Glanville. 2011. The Responsibility to Protect and International Law. Leiden
Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Doyle, Michael W (2011). "'International Ethics and the Responsibility to Protect'". International Studies Review. 13
(1): 72–84. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2486.2010.00999.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2486.2010.00999.x).

Evans, Gareth (2004). "'When is it Right to Fight?'". Survival. 46 (3): 59–82. doi:10.1093/survival/46.3.59 (https://
doi.org/10.1093%2Fsurvival%2F46.3.59).
Evans, Gareth. 2004. ‘The Responsibility to Protect: Rethinking Humanitarian Intervention’. Proceedings of the
Annual Meeting, reprinted in American Society of International Law 98: 78-89.
Evans, G., The Responsibility to Protect: End Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and for All, Washington D.C.: Brookings
Institution, 2008
Evans, Gareth (2009). "'Russia, Georgia and the Responsibility to Protect'". Amsterdam Law Forum. 1 (2): 25–28.
Hunt, Charles T.; Bellamy, Alex J. (2011). "'Mainstreaming the Responsibility to Protect in Peace Operations'". Civil
Wars. 13 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1080/13698249.2011.555688 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13698249.2011.555688).
Ban, Ki-moon, The Role of Regional and Sub-Regional Arrangements in Implementing the Responsibility to Protect,
A/65/877–S/2011/39, 28 June 2011.
Luck, Edward C., ‘The United Nations and the Responsibility to Protect’, Stanley Foundation Policy Analysis Brief,
August 2008
Luck, Edward C (2011). "'The Responsibility to Protect: Growing Pains or Early Promise?'". Ethics & International
Affairs. 24 (4): 34.
Pattison, James. 2010. Humanitarian Intervention and the Responsibility To Protect. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Paley, Gregory R., 2005. The responsibility to protect: East, West and Southern African perspectives on preventing
and responding to humanitarian crises. Waterloo, Ontario: Project Ploughshares.
Pingeot, Lou and Wolfgang Obenland, 2014. In whose name? A critical view on the Responsibility to Protect (http://
www.globalpolicy.org/images/pdfs/images/pdfs/In_whose_name_web.pdf). Bonn, Germany/New York: Global
Policy Forum/Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung—New York Office.
Ramesh Thakur and William Malley. Theorising the Responsibility to Protect. Cambridge University Press, 2015.
ISBN 978-1-107-62194-7.
Teitt, Sarah (2011). "'The Responsibility to Protect and China's Peacekeeping Policy'". International Peacekeeping.
18 (3): 298–312. doi:10.1080/13533312.2011.563085 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13533312.2011.563085).
Thakur, Ramesh (2003). "'In defence of the responsibility to protect'". The International Journal of Human Rights.
7 (3): 160–178. doi:10.1080/13642980310001726196 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13642980310001726196).
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