2. It is about 60-90%of most living organisms

4. Shown are water molecules adhering to various ions (adhesion), forming hydration shells around them Adhesion—Hydration Shells

5. Water resists evaporating (i.e., vaporizing) because hydrogen bonds must be broken in order for water to transition from the liquid to the gas state High Heat Vaporization

6. B. MINERAL & MINERAL SALTS -present in the form of cat-ions and anions. * Cat-ions - K+ and Na+- for conduction of nerve impulse - Mg+2 and Ca+2- for muscular contraction - Fe +2- for red blood cell formation * Anions - PO4- - necessary for nucleic acid formation - HCO3- - Control of pH in the blood

7. C. GASES - the most abundant are oxygen and carbon dioxide * Carbon dioxide – carried in three ways: 1. 5% in solution in the plasma as carbonic acid 2. 10% in combination with amino groups of hemoglobin 3. 85% in the form of sodium and potassium bicarbonates (blood salts both in the plasma and RBC

10. Carbohydrates Role: energy storage, structural role Not all carbons are macromolecules- some are small: Simple sugars The macromolecular form is just a long chain of simple sugars

11. Monosaccharides - simple sugar with one 6-carbon sugars - E.g., glucose, dextrose, galactose, fructose and pentose (constituents of nucleic acids and nucleotides such as deoxyribose and ribose sugars) 2. Oligosaccharides (mostly disaccharides) - double sugar with two 6-carbon sugars Examples: Glucose + galactose = lactose Glucose + fructose = sucrose Glucose + glucose = maltose

12. 3. Polysaccharides - a combination of more than 2 monosaccharides that is, a straight or branched chain of hundreds or thousands of sugar units of the same or different kinds Examples: Cellulose – the structural material in plant cell wall and consists of 2,000 united glucose units Glycogen – glucose-storage form that serves as reserve food for animals and is made up of 12-16 glucose units Starch- glucose- storage form that serves as reseve food for plants and is made up of 24-26 glucose units

13. Lipids:Fats & Oils -insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents such as chloroform -nonpolar and hence hydrophobic - contain higher proportion of hydrogen and much smaller proportion oxygen - chemically composed of C, H, and O but they may also contain other elements,particularly phosphorus and nitrogen Examples include: Oils (olive, corn…),Waxes (bee’s, ear),Fats

14. Functions: True fats furnish concentated fuel of high-energy value and represent an economical form of storage reserves in the body 2. Some phospholipids form part of the basic protoplasmic structure Classes of lipids Fatty acids - has a long unbranched carbon backbone with a –COOH group at the end -in living organisms usually contain an even number of carbon atoms

16. -C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-COOH

17. Examples of lipids with fatty acids are:

18. 1. glycerides – the body’s most abundant lipids and its richest surce of energy. With 1,2 or 3 fatty acid tails attached to a backbone of glycerol

20. Saturated & Unsaturated F.A.

21. Fatty Acids–Saturated, Unsaturated

22. 4. Waxes – Some wax secretions form coatings that help protect, lubricate, and maintain the pliability of skin and hair while other help make feathers water repellant II.Fats or triglycerides - fat molecules have twice as much energy per unit weight as CHO, which is why the body’s energy requirements are met much more readily on a high-fat diet

23. Functions: Important as energy-storage molecules in living organisms 2. Provide insulation, cushioning and protection for various parts of the body Composed of (building blocks): Glycerol - also called glycerin with a backbone of 3 carbon atoms, each with hydroxyl group 2. 3 fatty acids - formed by condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis (reaction joining 2 compounds with resultant formation of water) of glycerol and 3 fatty acids

24. Fatty Acids–Cis, Trans, Saturated

25. -In general, animal fats tend to be saturated while most vegetable fats (oil) are unsaturated. III. Phospholipids - are lipids wherein the phosphate group substituted for one of the 3 FA - among the most common are those composed of 1 unit of glycerol, 2 units of FA and 1 phosphate group are sometimes calleed “schizophrenic” molecules because of their split personality-one end is soluble in water and the other end is not. - The main structural component of the cell membrane

26. Phospholipids

27. IV. Steroids -differ markedly from fats, oils, and phospholipids and are not formed from condensation reactions between FA and alcohols - composed of 4 linked rings of C atoms with various side groups attached to the rings - are classified as lipids because they are also soluble in organic solvents and relatively insoluble in water Cholesterol is a steroid that is: 1. Important constituent of mammalian cell membranes

29. Play a leading role in both the structure and function of living organisms

31. Functions: Major components of muscles and are responsible for muscle contraction (contractile proteins like actin & myosin) For structural support A. Elastin- gives the skin its elasticity B. Keratin- The principal protein of hair, horns and claws including the silk of spider webs & silkmoth cocoons 3. Energy storage (albumin in eggs and casein in milk) 4. For oxygen transport in blood (hemoglobin) 5. Immune response (antibodies)

32. 6. Hormones (a control chemical sceted in one part of the body that effects other parts of the body) – e.g., insulin & growth hormones 7. Catalysts of biological reaction (protein enzymes guide all chemica reactions that occur inside the cell) 8. Poison (rattlesnake venom) 4. Nucleic acid -are the materials of which genes are made of - they are also the messenger substances that convey information that governs the synthesis of proteins amd thereby determines the structural attributes of the cell and regulates the cell’s other functional activities

34. - deoxyribonucleic acid acid (DNA) is the nucleic acid most genes are made of. It is compose of the following:

35. 1. Deoxyribose (the sugar component)

36. 2. Nitrogeneous bases

37. A. Purine(Double-ring structure)

39. Nucleic acid Lipid Protein Central Dogma Nucleic acid Nucleic acid Nucleic acid + protein Nucleic acid

40. DNA and RNA

41. Base Pairing

42. DNA and RNA Note that T pairs with A (T:A) and C pairs with G (G:C)