A2 AQA Sociology: Religion and Development and The 'Clash of Civilisations'

1. RELIGION IN A GLOBAL
CONTEXT

2. India
Globalisation has brought rapid economic
growth and has seen India become important
in politics and prosperous.
Nanda examines the role of Hinduism in
legitimating the rise of a new Hindu ‘ultra
nationalism’ and the prosperity of the middle
class.

3. Hinduism and Consumerism
Globalisation created a prosperous, urban, scientifically
educated middle class. These are the people
secularisation theorists predicted would abandon religion
first. But, Nanda observes this class continue to believe in
the supernatural.
The Centre for the Study of Developing societies found (30%
of) Indians are becoming more religious. It also found that
“urban educated Indians are more religious than their rural
and illiterate counterparts”.

4. Nanda notes it is becoming fashionable to be
religious. The religious middle class are also
attracted to what were once low status village
Gods and Goddesses who the poor
worshipped. This is because these deities are
seen as being more responsive to peoples
needs.

5. Nanda examines what motivates the
sophisticated, urban middle class to believe in
miracles and supernatural beings. She rejects
poverty or existential security as they aren’t poor
and that religiosity is a defence against
modernisation and Westernisation. The Indian
middle class are optimistic about what
globalisation brings them. She argues their
increasing religiosity is the result of their
ambivalence about their new wealth.

6. This ambivalence stems from tension between
the traditional Hindu belief of renunciation of
materialism and wordly-desires and the new
prosperity of the middle class. This is resolved
by the modern holy men and TV gurus to
whom they turn and who preach the message
that desire is not bad, but a manifestation of
divinity that motivates people to do things.

7. Similarly, they dispense business-friendly versions of
Hinduism and take the edge off guilt by teaching
middle class consumerism can be ‘spiritually
balanced’ by paying for the performance of
appropriate (and extravagant) rituals.
Modern versions of Hinduism therefore legitimate
the position of the middle class and allow them to
adjust to globalised consumer capitalism.

8. Hindu Ultra-Nationalism
Nanda looks at the role of Hinduism in
legitimating a triumphant version of Indian
nationalism.
The Pew Global Attitude found 93% agreed with:
“Our people aren’t perfect but our culture is
superior to others”
This percentage is higher than any other
country.

9. Nanda notes India’s success in the global
market is increasingly attributed to the
superiority of ‘Hindu values’ which the media
promote and the idea that Hinduism is the
essence of Indian culture and identity.
In this Hindu ‘ultra nationalism’, the worship of
Hindu Gods has become the same as
worshipping the nation of India; Hinduism has
become a civil religion.

10. But, she notes this is creating a widening gulf between
Hindu and non-Hindu minorities. Hinduism also
penetrated public life, so that the supposedly secular
state is increasingly influenced by religion. ‘Hindu
sciences’ (e.g. Astrology) are being taught in education
and are being used to predict natural disasters; the
Ministry of Defence is sponsoring research into weapons
with magical powers (mentioned in ancient Hindu texts);
the Health Ministry is investing in research into cow
urine as a cure for every ailment (cows are sacred in
Hinduism)

11. East Asia
The success of capitalism in East Asia led some
sociologists to argue religion played a similar role to
Calvinism in its development. Redding sees the spirit of
capitalism amongst Chinese entrepreneurs in tiger
economies as having ‘post-Confucian’ values which
encourage hard-work, self-discipline and commitment to
education and improvement. The effect of this value
system is that it leads to economic productivity and the
accumulation of Capital.

12. Pentecostalism in Latin America
Berger argues Pentecostalism in Latin America
acts as a ‘functional equivalent’ to Weber’s
Protestant ethic. That is, it encourages the
development of capitalism (like Calvinism). He
concludes Pentecostalism has a strong affinity
with modern capitalism. Berger agrees it is
necessary to promote economic development
and raise society out of poverty. This process
can be led by an active minority with this-wordly
ascetism.

13. Pentecostalism: Global & Local
Lehmann distinguishes between two phases in
the Pentecostalism expansion
 1st  Christianity accompanies colonisation
and was imposed on the indigenous
populations by conquest, often forcibly
suppressing local religions
 2nd  it has spread as it gained a popular
following from below

14. Lehmann attributes the success of
Pentecostalism as a global religion in part to
its ability to ‘plug into’ and incorporate local
beliefs. It preaches a similar message
worldwide, but uses symbolism and imagery
drawn from local cultures and existing beliefs.
It creates new local religious forms, rather than
replacing existing ones. It appeals to the poor
and uses global communication to spread its
message.

15. Religion and the ‘clash of civilisations’

16. Huntington (neo-conservative) thinks conflicts such as
9/11 have intensified since the collapse of communism
in 1989 and are symptoms of the ‘clash of civilisations’.
He identifies 7 civilisations
 Western
 Latin America
 Confucian
 Japanese
 Islamic
 Hindu
 Slavic-Orthodox

17. Each civilisation has a common cultural background and
history and is closely identified with one of the world’s
great religions.
Shared religion creates social cohesion within
civilisations but can cause conflict between them.

18. Religious differences have become a source of identity...
 With the fall of communism, political differences between nations
have become less important as a source of identity
 Globalisation has made nation-states less significant as a source of
identity, creating a gap that religion has filled
 It also makes contact between civilisations easier and more
frequent, increasing the likelihood of old conflicts re-emerging

19. In Huntington’s view, religious differences are creating a
new set of hostile ‘us and them’ relationships with
increased competition between civilisations for
economic and military power. He sees religious
differences as harder than political ones to resolve as
they are deeply rooted in culture and history.
Huntington sees History as a struggle of ‘progress against
barbarism’. He believes the West is under threat and
predicts growing conflict between ‘the West and the
rest’. He fears the emergence of new anti-Western
military alliances and urges the West to reassert its
Christian identity.

20. Criticisms
 Jackson sees his work as an example of Orientalism –
a western ideology that stereotypes Eastern nations and
people as untrustworthy and inferior.
 Casanova argues he ignores important religious
divisions with the ‘civilisations’
 Horrie and Chippindale see the ‘clash of civilisations’
as a grossly misleading neo-conservative ideology that
portrays the whole of Islam as an enemy. In reality, only
a tiny minority of Muslims are remotely interested in a
‘holy war’ against the West.
 Armstrong argues hostility towards the West doesn’t
stem from Fundamentalist Islam but is a reaction to
Western foreign policy.

21. The Real Clash of Civilisations?
Using data from the World Values survey, Inglehart and Norris
conclude the issue that divides the West from the Muslim world is
sexuality, not democracy. There are great differences in attitudes
when it comes to abortion, gender equality, divorce and gay rights;
Western attitudes are liberal whilst Muslim’s are traditional.
Inglehart and Norris comment that in the last decade, democracy has
become the political ideology to gain global appeal. But, there is no
global agreement about self-expression values. In their view, ‘these
divergent values constitute in the real clash of civilisations between
Muslin societies and the West’