Lead Essay Chemistry

Lead Essay Chemistry
The element I decided to do was lead. Lead was used many years before and it is still used a lot
today. Lead is still very useful and is found in many things that were used a long time ago and things
we still use today. Lead is a very poisonous element that can really harm your skin and your body.
Since lead is very toxic, it's not recommended for children. Lead is also the heaviest of the carbon
family.
Lead was used by the Romans for water pipes, aqueducts, tank linings, and cooking pots. In the 21st
century, lead remains a cornerstone of society. Ancient scientists used it in cosmetics, paints,
pigments, and in lead–rich glazes. The chemical properties in lead is what makes it a thoroughly
modern metal. Lead's chemical symbol comes from the latin word for waterworks.
Lead's atomic number is 82. It's atomic weight is 207.2, and lead's atomic mass is 207.2 u + – 0.1 u.
It also has a density that is 11.342 grams per cubic centimeter. Leads color can differ based on where
it is. Lead can be an aqua white but then a dull gray color when it is exposed to air. It's a solid at
room temperature. "It's element classification is a metal and its electron ... Show more content on
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Lead poisoning is a serious and sometimes fatal condition. The poisoning is found in paints, toys,
contaminated dust, and gasoline products. Children are the most vulnerable to lead poisoning
because most of them use toy trucks or dolls which have paint and they are getting poisoned when
they put them in their mouths a lot like most kids and toddlers do. Adults can also be poisoned but
not as severe as children. Adults can get poisoned by lead and have muscle and joint pain, nerve
disorders, digestive issues, and high blood pressure. That is not as severe as a child decreased in
intelligence speech and language impairment, decreased bone growth, and kidney
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Acidic Environment
Acidic Environment
Oxides of non–metals which act as acids
Non–metals burn in air or oxygen to produce acidic oxides. The addition of water to soluble oxides
produces acidic solutions.
Oxides of non–metals which act as acids include:
* Carbon reacts with oxygen when burnt to form carbon dioxide which is acidic in nature. When
dissolved in water, it becomes H2CO3 (carbonic acid).
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) â†'H2CO3 (aq)
* Sulfur burns in oxygen to give sulfur dioxide or sulfur trioxide which is acidic in nature. When
dissolved in water, it forms sulfurous acid H2SO3 and sulfuric acid H2SO4 respectively.
[IMAGE]
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) â†'H2CO4 (aq)
Sulfur ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Electropositive behaviour increases from right to left across the periodic table and increases down
the column. As the electropositivity of the atom increases, so too the basicity of the oxide. The more
electronegative the atom, the more acidic the oxide.
Sulfur dioxide & oxides of Nitrogen
The oxides of nitrogen form naturally when lightning strikes cause nitrogen and oxygen in the air to
combine. Thus the nitrogen oxides become oxidised to nitric acid, nitrates and nitrites.
N2 + O2[IMAGE] 2NO
Nitrogen monoxide or nitrogen oxide can also be formed (industrially) in internal combustion
engines or high temperature combustion reactions in furnaces:

N2 + O2[IMAGE] 2NO
This nitrogen monoxide gas can further react with oxygen in the air to form brown acidic nitrogen
dioxide.
2NO + O2[IMAGE] 2NO2
Nitrogen oxides are soluble in water and have known contributions to pollutants (PAN) in
photochemical smog as well as its detrimental effects to animal respiratory systems. There are a
number of these such oxides including: nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen
monoxide (NO).
Sulfur dioxide and the oxides of nitrogen profoundly contribute to the acidity of the atmosphere and
ultimately, the production of acid rain.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is an acidic

Dehydration Of Sulfuric Acid And Phosphoric Acid
Dehydration of 2–methylcyclohexanol Authors: Johnny Presley Abstract: Dehydration of 2–
methylcyclohexanol to 3–methylcyclohexene is simple distillation where dehydration was used to
prepare the final product. The results of the experiment showed that the 3–methylcyclohexene was
formed via an E1 reaction from 2–methylcyclohexanol with a 1:1 ratio of sulfuric acid and
phosphoric acid. However, some H2O was left over, which was seen when we look at the IR and see
a small water peak. This could be due to the fact that not enough sodium sulfate was added and not
for long enough. These results were confirmed by the quality tests that showed that a precipitate
formed when KMnO4 was added to the solution and in the IR spectroscopy peaks showed peaks at
3022.62cm–1 which matches an alkene, further showing that the formation of 3–methylcyclohexene
was successful with a percent yield of 56.46%. Introduction: The major reaction that happened was
an E1 reaction (otherwise known as a unimolecular elimination reaction). In this reaction the
removal of an HX substituent group results in the formation of a double bond via beta hydrogen
elimination4. In an E1 reaction the deprotonation of hydrogen in the beta position occurs and from
here a carbocation is formed, which results in the formation of an alkene product. This happens
when the OH group on the 2–methylcyclohexanol is hydrated by H2SO4, which allows the OH to
become an H2O. Since H20 is a better leaving group now it will

Molecular Biology And Biotechnology ( Biotech )
CARBON SOURCE The lignocellulosic hydrolysate will be prepared by the National Institute of
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (BIOTECH, UPLB) from sweet sorghum bagasse subjected
to pretreatment followed by sulfuric acid (0.75 wt% and pH 1.1) hydrolysis at 100∘C.
BACTERIAL STRAIN
Cupriavidus necator is a bacterial strain that is commonly used in accumulating poly–3–
hydroxybutyrate (PHB), the most common type of PHA. It is most effective when the amount of
carbon source present is in excess compared to the other essential nutrients in the medium like
nitrogen, phosphorus or oxygen (Lopez–Abelairas, Garcia– Torreiro, Lu–Chau, Lema, &
Steinbuchel, 2015). This bacterial strain will be pre–cultured from within 24 hours in a 500 mL
Erlenmeyer flask under 30∘C and 150 revolutions per minute (rpm) without the addition of other
carbon source (Martinez, Bertin, Scoma, Rebecchi, Braunegg, & Fava, 2015). The C. necator culture
will be stored at –80∘C in a 2 mL cryovial containing 300 µL of glycerol with 20 grams per liter
(g/L) of xylose (Cesario, Raposo, de Almeida, van Keulen, Ferreira, & da Fonseca, 2014). In this
experiment, "dual–phase strategy" will be performed. This will employ that two different media will
be prepared for the first and the second process. The first process will involve the cell growth or the
balanced growth phase. On the other hand, the second process will involve the accumulation of
PHA. Both media that will be prepared will limit the ammonia (NH3)

Nucleophilic Substitution: Synthesis of N-Butyl Bromide...
Nucleophilic Substitution | Synthesis of n–Butyl Bromide and t–Pentyl Chloride | | Jessica | [Pick the
date] | Abstract The synthesis of the alkyl halide n–Butyl Bromide from alcohol is the foundation for
the experiment. During the isolation of the n–butyl bromide, the crude product is washed with
sulfuric acid, water, and sodium bicarbonate to remove any remaining acid or n–butyl alcohol. The
primary alkyl halide halide n–butyl bromide is prepared by allowing n–butyl alcohol to react with
sodium bromide and sulfuric acid. The sodium bromide reacts with sulfuric acid to produce
hydrobromic acid . Excess sulfuric acid acts to shift the equilibrium and speed up the reaction by
producing a higher concentration of hydrobromic acid. The ... Show more content on
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14 mL of 9 M H2SO4 was added to the separatory funnel and the mixture was shaken. The layers
were given a small amount of time to separate. The remaining n–butyl alcohol was extracted by the
H2SO4 solution therefore, there was only one organic top layer. The lower aqueous layer was
drained and discarded. 14 mL of H2O was added to the separatory funnel. A stopper was placed on
the separatory funnel and it was shaken while being vented occasionally. The layers separated and
the lower layer which contained the n–butyl bromide was drained into a smaller beaker. The
aqueous layer was then discarded after ensuring that the correct layer had been saved by completing
the "water drop test" (adding a drop of water to the drained liquid and if the water dissolves, it
confirms that it is an aqueous layer). The alkyl halide was then returned to the separatory funnel. 14
mL of saturated aqeous sodium bicarbonate was added a little at a time while the separatory funnel
was being swirled. A stopper was placed on the funnel and it was shaken for 1 minute while being
vented frequently to relieve any pressure that was being produced. The lower alkyl halide layer was
drained into a dry Erlenmeyer flask and 1.0 g of anhydrous calcium chloride was added to dry the
solution. A stopper was placed on the Erlenmeyer flask and the contents were swirled until the liquid
was clear. For the distillation

The Alternating Chemical Reactions Of The Copper Cycle Essay
The Alternating Chemical Reactions of the Copper Cycle
*Nikko Baez and John Harling
Chemistry 111
Course Section 475
Introduction:
Copper has a very important biological and environmental significance, and is considered one of the
most important elements all over the world. Within this experiment, copper's ionic and elemental
forms will be examined. This will be done by exposing copper to a series of chemicals and
transforming copper into a nitrate, a hydroxide, an oxide, a sulfate, and then changing it back to its
original element, copper. This process is known as the Copper Cycle, and can be used to study and
observe the different types of chemical reactions that exist within our biological and environmental
systems.
Materials and Methods: The materials that were used to conduct this experiment include a 50 mL
beaker, a 10 mL graduated cylinder, a hot plate, a ring stand, a clamp, an iron ring, a plastic funnel,
an aspirator, rubber tubing, weighing boats, a magnetic stir rod, disposable pipettes, a stirring rod, a
filter flask, filter paper, a Büchner funnel, distilled water, a watch glass, and litmus paper. The
chemicals used in this experiment include 6M of HNO_3 (Nitric Acid), 6M of NaOH (Sodium
Hydroxide), 3M of H_2 SO_4(Sulfuric acid), 6M of HCl (Hydrochloric Acid), Zinc, and Copper
turnings. The experiment began with setting up the first apparatus by placing the 50 mL beaker on
the hot plate and attaching the beaker to the ring stand. Then a fume hood was

Essay on Medicine During the Elizabethan Era
Medicine During the Elizabethan Era
The medicinal practices and problems of the Elizabethan Era were very important to the people,
although they are very different from those of today. There were many different beliefs and diseases,
like the Plague. Medicine was not an exact science and was related to Alchemy (Chemistry). Here,
some of the many practices and beliefs of the Elizabethan Era will be discussed.
One of the most widely known and important of the beliefs was the humours. It was believed that
every living creature was composed of four elements, the humours. They were blood, phlegm,
choler (or yellow bile), and melancholy (or black bile). It was believed that the overall total
combination of these four elements determined ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He would also wish to know which part of the body was affected by the illness, because each part
was related to a certain star sign or constellation, and he would bear in mind under which star sign
each ingredient of certain medicines was under.
Alchemy (Early Chemistry) was another science closely related to medicine. Alchemy was the name
given to this science in Latin Europe in the 12th century. It was a belief that the human body was
closely related to the stars and the heavens. Over hundreds of years, the main goals of alchemists
were to turn any metal into gold and discover an elixir which could cure all ills or lead to
immortality. This magical elixir was called the philosopher's stone. Alchemy was based on the belief
that there are four basic elements – fire, earth, air and water – and three essentials – salt, sulfur and
mercury. The metals gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, and tin were all known before the rise of
alchemy. The liquid metal, mercury, and the burning rock, sulfur, were also known. Many processes
with these elements were known to alchemists. The art of alchemy was heavily spiritual. Alchemists
were the first to try out different ideas and experiment with different elements, but because of their
intense metaphysical and spiritual beliefs, they didn't develop modern day scientific methods.
Alchemist studied alchemy for hundreds of years, but they didn't

Aluminum Foil Lab Report
The purpose of the experiment was to synthesize alum from aluminum foil, using a series of
chemical reactions. The synthesis was achieved using sulfuric acid, potassium hydroxide, water, and
aluminum. The synthesized alum was then used in a number of tests to test for the presence of ions
in the compound (potassium, aluminum, sulfate, and water). The left over alum was then used to
employ various techniques for crystal growth. In part one of the experiment, 0.251 grams of
aluminum foil were obtained and then cut into smaller pieces to increase surface area, the resulting
aluminum foil weighed 0.256 grams. The aluminum foil was then added to a 250 mL Erlenmeyer
flask, and 12.5 mL of 4M KOH were added to the flask. This reaction resulted in ... Show more
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However, a major source of error which resulted in the percent yield of alum being so low, was due
to the hole in the filter paper and losing alum while trying to transfer it to a new filter. Alum was lost
to the glove used to transfer it, and alum was left on the first filter paper. Additionally, there was
difficult in getting all of the alum crystal out of the cooled flask and into the filter –some alum was
left in the flask and went unmeasured. These errors resulted in a lower weight of produced alum and
therefore a low percent

The First Method Of Aas
The first method to talk about is AAS. The general idea of AAS is to make up standard solutions of
differing amounts of known concentrations of each of the metals to generate a calibration curve and
then measure the absorption or emission of the unknown solution and then compare that value
against the concentration curve to figure out the concentration of each metal in the sample. Atoms
are put into the gas phrase for analysis. The process of getting the metal into the gas phase involves
adding energy to the sample. First, water is driven off and then molecules are broken apart into
atoms. If more energy is added, the atoms go from their ground state into their electronically excited
state. When performing atomic absorption spectroscophy, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
[Leverman] Intensity is measured as log I0/I where I0 is the intensity of the blank and I is the
intensity of the analyte. The light source shines specific wavelengths of light through the flame that
then hit the detector. Because specific wavelengths of light are absorbed by the sample, what
actually reaches the detector is a portion of what was emitted by the source in atomic absorption
spectroscopy. The source and the sample are matched in such a way that the chemical composition
of the filament within the lamp contain some of the same types of atoms that is analyzed. In this
specific case, the filament would be made of copper and lead and perhaps some other metals. The
source emits several lines where each line corresponds to a different energy transition between the
ground and excited state and the sample absorbs only a fraction of that energy. There is a lot of
electromagnetic spectrum information heading towards the detector so the purpose of the
monochromator, which is located between the sample and the detector, is to sort out that light
information spatially similar to what a prism does when white light sunlight hits it and produces a
rainbow. The instrument acts like all other absorption instruments in that, as the concentration of
atoms increases, the light intensity hitting the detector goes down and conversely as the number of
atoms decrease the light

Synthesis Of Nitroacetanilide Lab Report
Abstract This paper describes the process of determining an unknown isomer of nitroacetanilide
over a two–week process. The first step was synthesizing acetanilide from aniline and acetic
anhydride. The resulting acetanilide product yield was 11.01 grams, giving a percent yield of
76.99%. Once this was achieved and verified through melting point, IR, and NMR tests, with a
melting point range of 112° – 115.5° C. The acetanilide underwent nitration to form nitroacetanilide.
The resulting nitroacetanilide product yielded 2.5 grams, giving a percent yield of 29%. After
performing a melting point test and cross–referencing the results of 212°–214.5° C, as well as IR
and NMR spectrums to known isomers of nitroacetanilide, it was determined that ... Show more
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This reaction occurs by reacting acetanilide with a HNO3/H2SO4 solution under cold conditions.
During this reaction, the amide group attached to the number 1 carbon of aniline is a strong
activating group that will direct the nitro group to bond in the ortho or para positions on the benzene
ring, which occurs because of ortho–para directing of activating groups2. Initially, to start this
reaction, 6.5 grams of solid acetanilide must be placed into 10 mL of glacial acetic acid and fully
dissolved over a steam bath then cooled via ice bath with 10 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid. After
the mixture had cooled, a cold HNO3/H2SO4 solution was added slowly to ensure that the reaction
would not occur to quickly, which would hinder the reaction process. The yellow precipitate of
nitroacetanilide was formed when 100 mL of cold water was poured into the mixture and filtered
through a Buchner funnel.. This process was then repeated through the addition of 100 mL of cold
water then filtrated via vacuum4. Ethanol was added to the precipitate and then brought to a boil
over a steam bath, helping to eliminate any impurities of the nitroacetanilide. After dissolving,
recrystallization via ice bath was performed to give us the unknown isomer of nitroacetanilide.
Through the melting point tests in Table 3, IR in Figure 1, and NMR tests shown in Figure 2, and
cross referencing these results to the known isomers of nitroacetanilide, the unknown isomer was
determined to be p–nitroacetanilide which is the major product of the nitration process as the para
position for the nitro group is more stable than the ortho product. The chemical properties of these
are extremely different, which is why the melting point test was the first test that showed which
isomer was formed2. The melting point range of o–nitroacetanilide is

The Environmental Protection Agency ( Epa ) Essay
During and since World War II the United States has produced millions of tons of toxic wastes
during the manufacturing and processing of products. These hazards were often left abandoned and
no one really paid attention to their effect on our environment. In the 1980s Congress established a
Superfund Program. It was left for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to administer the
superfund program, to find these hazardous sites, investigate and determine the worst ones, and then
clean up those sites across the United States. Over 15,000 sites were identified and 1,400 were
named to the National Priorities List (NPL). One of the towns was Picher Oklahoma named in the
Tar Creek Superfund Site. Picher and the neighboring towns covering over a 50 square mile area
became known as the Tar Creek Superfund Site and were officially put on the NPL on 8 September
1983 ("challenge posed to children's health by mixtures of toxic waste: the Tar Creek Superfund Site
as a case–study," n.d.). All of the information was finally out. The hazards were known. It was time
for the clean up to begin. Where do you begin when a problem is this large? The Environmental
Protection Agency was tasked to take the lead in the clean–up. It was easy to identify the hazards:
contaminated water, contaminated soil, possible area collapse, and the lead laced chat piles. To
begin the Superfund site cleanup the EPA started with monitoring of the surface water, acid mine
water discharge, and

Drug Use Is Not Something That Just Happens Overnight
Drug use is not something that just happens overnight. There are many things that led up to a person
deciding they want to try a drug for the first time. It might be that they were exposed to it at an early
age and perceived it to be the norm to use them. They might have experienced peer pressure at a
party or just wanted to fit in with a certain crowd. Or they may have gotten a prescription for one
and liked the high they felt when they were on it so they wanted to find a way to continue feeling
that same high. Each situation is different, and the drugs that were most likely used in each scenario
are also going to be different. A drug that is rather common for someone to be exposed to from an
early age is cocaine. Cocaine is classified ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Then the coca paste is dissolved in a small amount of dilute sulfuric acid and potassium
permanganate is added (How Cocaine Is Made. (n.d.).
When cocaine is in this form it is most often snorted or mixed with water and injected into the blood
stream. The high people get from cocaine use does not last very long, which is what causes them to
binge use, and why addiction can be caused so quickly. The user is constantly chasing that initial
high and wanting it to last longer. Cocaine is a strong central nervous system stimulant that
increases levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine in brain circuits regulating pleasure and
movement (Cocaine (2013, April). It can also cause bursts of energy, talkativeness, increased heart
rate and blood pressure, dilated pupils, and increased body temperature. The most serious side effect
can be death if the manufacturing process was not done correctly.
Learning theory is probably the best explanation as to why one would chose to use cocaine. Cocaine
produces a high that can be rewarding because of the euphoria it produces. When the high wears off
the user experiences a crash and wants the high back. They have learned through continued use that
in order to get the euphoric feeling they must continue to use the drug. Although chemicals such as
cocaine might initially have been used for social reasons, the substances ' ability to provide
physiological and psychological

Methyl Benzoate Lab Report
The substances used during the experiment have some hazardous drawbacks. Some hazards of
working with ethanol are eye and skin irritation and organ toxicity (Ethanol). This compound is
combustible. Some hazards of working with nitric acid are its toxicity and the irritations associated
with inhalation, ingestion or contact with its vapors to the skin and eyes (NITRIC ACID). This
compound is not combustible. Some hazards of working with sulfuric acid are serious burns and
damage to the eyes, skin, and organs (sulfuric acid). This compound is not combustible. Some
hazards of working with methyl benzoate are eyes, nose, throat, upper respiratory tract, and skin
irritations (METHYL BENZOATE). This compound is combustible. Some hazards of working ...
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First, students set up two ice baths with TAP water, in each, and a vacuum filtration apparatus. 2. An
Erlenmeyer flask, secured with a clasp, was placed in one ice bath and two test tubes, one with
0.5mL nitric acid and another with 1.6mL sulfuric acid. 3. The test tubes with their respective acids
were chilled for 15 minutes. 4. As they were being chilled, 0.5mL of methyl benzoate and 1.0mL
sulfuric acid were poured into the Erlenmeyer flask and secured in the other ice bath. 5. After the 15
minutes, the sulfuric acid was carefully added into the nitric acid, three drops at a time, and swirled
during the mixing of chilled acids. 6. The colorless mixture was left in the ice bath for 10 minutes. 7.
The 10 minutes concluded and the mixture, now containing the nitrating agent, was poured into the
Erlenmeyer flask and left to chill for 30–45 minutes, while swirling the flask every 5 minutes. 8.
The colorless solution was poured into a beaker containing 10mL of chilled water, after the
designated time, to initiate recrystallization for 5–10 minutes. 9. The nitrated methyl benzoate
solution was then poured onto the filtrating apparatus and left to dry for 10 minutes. 10. The white,
dried crystals were weighed and dissolved in ethanol then filtrated again and

How To Cacl2: Calcium Chloride
14. a) CaCl2 – Calcium Chloride b) Fe(NO3)3 – Iron (III) Nitrate c) SO3 – Sulfur Trioxide d)
HsSO4 – Mercury (II) Sulfate e) Ag2CO3 – Silver Carbonate 15. a) Gold (III) Oxide – Au2O3 b)
Nitrogen Tribromide – NBr3 c) Nickel (II) Phosphate – Ni3(PO4)2 d) Magnesium Hydroxide –
Mg(OH)2 e) Lithium Nitride – Li3N 16. a) Ba + O2 = 2BaO b) AgNO3 + CuCl2 = 2AgCl +
Cu(NO3)2 c) Mg + 2FeF3 = 2Fe + 3MgF2 d) CaO + 2H3PO4 = Ca3(PO4)2 + 3H2O e) (NH4)2S +
2CoCl3 = Co2S3 + 6NH4Cl 17. a) Single displacement b) Decomposition c) Synthesis d) Double
displacement e) Decomposition f) Single displacement g) Double displacement h) Synthesis 18.
Mg+CuCl2: reaction occurs– copper is below Magnesium, that's why magnesium is more active and
will replace copper. PbSO4+Zn: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
. a) Sulphuric acid + sodium hydroxide = sodium sulphate + water Balanced: H2SO4 + 2NaOH =
Na2SO4 + 2H2O Unbalanced: H2SO4 + NaOH = Na2SO4 + H2O b) Magnesium hydroxide +
hydrochloric acid = magnesium chloride + water Balanced: Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl = MgCl2 + 2H2O
Unbalanced: Mg(OH)2 + HCl = MgCl2 + H2O c) Nitric acid + Lithium hydroxide = Lithium nitrate
+ water Balanced: This chemical equation is already balanced. (HNO3 + LiOH = H2O + LiNO3)
Unbalanced: HNO3 + LiOH = H2O + LiNO3 d) Sulfuric acid + Sodium hydroxide = Sodium sulfate
+ water Balanced: H2SO4 + 2 NaOH = Na2SO4 + 2 H2O Unbalanced: H2SO4 + NaOH = Na2SO4
+ H2O 22. a) Word equation: Carbon + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide Balanced equation: C + O2 =
CO2 Word equation: Sulfur + Oxygen = Sulfur Dioxide Balanced equation: S + O2 = SO2 b) Sulfur
dioxide is harmful, because water makes sulfurous acid and because of the harsh nature of
phosphoric acid. c) Word equation: Sulfur + Oxygen = Sulfur Dioxide Balanced equation: S + O2 =
SO2 (toxic gas) Word equation: Sulfur dioxide + water = Sulfurous acid Balanced equation: SO2 +
H2O = H2SO3 (Acid Rain) 23. a) complete combustion reaction b) complete combustion reaction c)
incomplete combustion reaction d) incomplete combustion

Disadvantages Of Fossil Fuels
Ever since the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, fossil fuels have seen a huge rise in
popularity. Used to power the economy and numerous factories, fossil fuels started the leap in
technology that gives us the power we take for granted today. Since the beginning of the oil industry
in the 19th century, petroleum has risen to global everyday usage. Initially kerosene, a product
derived from petroleum, was used for lighting and heating, but with the appearance of oil drilling
technology petroleum became mass produced. Used to generate electricity to power automobiles,
ships, planes, etc. Today the world is almost completely dependant on fossil fuels. World
consumption of fossil fuels has increased from 3.8 billion tons of oil in 1965 to 11.1 billion tons of
oil in 2007. Of all the fossil fuels available, oil has had the most profound effect on society.
However, fossil fuels are a finite resource. Fossil fuels work by converting the heat energy released
by combustion into electrical energy. Once the hard resources are extracted and refined, they are
ready for use. When combustion commences, the hydrocarbons present create energy. The heat used
to burn the fossil fuels causes the molecules of carbon and hydrogen to react, which produces a large
amount of energy. When they are exposed to heat, the hydrocarbon chain converts the heat energy
from the fossil fuels to electrical energy or mechanical energy. Coal power stations use similar
features. They burn large

Discuss The Arguments For Banning Sulphuric Acid
PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 ↔ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O The reaction of lead and lead oxide with the sulfuric
acid electrolyte produces a voltage. The supplying of energy to and external resistance the battery.
When a lead acid battery cell produces energy, it converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
During this process, Lead is oxidised at the anode according to this equation: Pb(s) → Pb2+(aq) +
2e– The reduction process in lead acid batteries occurs at the cathode, as shown above. Lead (from
lead dioxide) is reduced at the cathode by protons in the sulphuric acid: PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2e–
→ Pb2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) In order to galvanise iron or steel, sulphuric acid is used to remove oxides.
An oxidant is a reactant that oxidises or removes electrons from other ... Show more content on
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The main sources of pollution caused by this process are process wastes and emissions of
contaminated air. Acid rain is one of the emissions that contributes to pollution. The process of
smelting sulphide ores produces sulphur dioxide gas; this chemical reacts in the atmosphere to form
a mist, which then falls to earth as acid rain. To reduce this effect, new technology has been created
and plays an important role in reducing smelting related pollution. Previously, old smelting
machines were the cause of most of the sulphur dioxide generators. Using machines such as
electrostatic precipitators, almost all of the sulphur is captured prior to the emission and returned to
the

Zirconium: Jacinth Stone On The Jerusalem Wall
History:
The history of zirconium all started with a stone that was initially used on the Jerusalem wall. The
jacinth stone was the same mineral referred to by the Persians as zargun, meaning "gold–like" in
Persian. 1
Jons Jacob Berzelius was the second chemist in history attempting to isolate zirconium and he was
unable to obtain its pure form. Jons Jacob Berzelius experimented with impure zirconium by heating
potassium hexafluorozirconate with a potassium metal enclosed in an iron tube. After analyzing the
final outcome Berzellius was able to view a tiny amount of black powder, which was (K2ZrF6).
Anton Eduard Van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer were successful in the isolation of zirconium. Van
Arkel was able to purify a transition metal by using a sublimation process. Hendrik de Boer was
intrigued with Anton Eduard's method and decided to try a similar approach in separating hafnium
and zirconium. The first attempt of purification of zirconium using chlorides was not successful. In
1925, Arkel and Hendrik de Boer were able to obtain pure metallic zirconium by using a crystal bar
process, also known as an Iodide ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
John. A. Avers conducted a purification experiment of Zirconium via ion exchange to determine the
percentage of recovery of the element. John A. Avers used various resins to determine which would
obtain the highest purification of zirconium compared to other ion exchange resins and the
extraction of the element will be conducted by using Zirconium from ores. Some of the resins used
consisted of rare earths, beryllium, titanium and iron. John A. Ayers took zirconium ore's and broke
them down by using concentrated sulfuric acid. 8 Once the zirconium ore was broken down, the
soluble zirconium was then converted to its nitrate form, Zr(NO3)4. The zirconium nitrate is then
passed through a column containing a resin. The hydrogen form of Amberlite I.R.–100 was used as
the

Aromatic Substitution : Nitration Of Bromobenzene And...
CH 220C – Organic Chemistry Lab
Experiment 13: Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Nitration of Bromobenzene and Relative Rates
of Reaction
Rodan Devega
Introduction Electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS) reactions involve the replacement of a
hydrogen atom bonded to an aromatic compound by an electrophile. The rate and direction of the
EAS reaction depends on the functional groups present on the aromatic compound. The purpose of
this experiment was to synthesize bromonitrobenzene by reacting bromobenzene with sulfuric acid
and nitric acid via EAS. Gas chromatography (GC) was performed on the product in order to
confirm its identity by comparing its observed retention time to the true retention time of
bromonitrobenzene. Additionally, the relative rates of reaction for several substituted aromatic
compounds were predicted and examined via reaction with molecular bromine. The rates were than
compared to gain insight on the affect of different substituents on rates of reactions concerning
aromatic compounds.
Data and Results
Table 1. Relative rates of various EAS reactions.
Compound
Elapsed Time (s)
Temperature (C)
Phenol
1.0
35
4–Bromophenol
4.0
35
Anisole
7.0
35
Acetanilide
> 60.0
35
Diphenyl Ether
>> 60.0

35
The order of EAS rates, from fastest to slowest, is as follows: phenol, 4–bromophenol, anisole,
acetanilide, and diphenyl ether.
Table 2. GC product analysis of bromonitrobenzene.
Peak Number
Time (min)
Area (uV*sec)
Height (uV)
Area (%)
1
0.482
599
862
0.14
2

The Festering Odor Of Sulfuric Acid
Upon entering the village of DePue, IL, one may ponder about the festering odor of sulfuric acid in
the air that clashes with the scenic view of a serene lake surrounded by wooded land. The main
street of DePue is lined with locally owned businesses, along with abandoned, crumbling buildings.
The community members of this village may either smile and wave at a passer–by, or glare at you
with an off–putting facial expression. Despite the confusing impression a non–resident or visitor
might form, DePue has an interesting history. DePue is home to about 1,800 residents whom are
devoted to preserving the traditions that this community has to offer. I am quite familiar with the
village of Depue, because my grandparents have lived here for nearly 50 years. My grandfather,
Walter Ivan, used to own a barber shop on the main street for nearly 35 years, until he passed away
in February of this year. He was well–known in this community, and was recognized by his fellow
community members for his generous personality and contagious laughter. My grandfather executed
willingness to learn Spanish, in order to better communicate with the mainly Hispanic community
members, as well as learn about their culture. He also was a member of the Depue Booster Club and
the Depue Men's Club. He strongly believed in being an active member of Depue, and always
encouraged me to do the same in my hometown. My grandmother, Dorothy Ivan, is an active
member of the church in Depue, and is always

The Effect Of Superphosphate On The Local Community And...
In the following report I will be explaining the use of 'superphosphate' in our local community and
how it helps in the process of fertilising. The fertiliser made by using local rock containing
fluorapatite( referenced from instruction sheet ) which is combined with sulphuric acid resulting in
the solution of 'superphosphate' being formed. Also we will be discussing how 'superphosphate'
affects the community and the environment surrounding it, alongside how is produced and the by–
products formed and the effects of these by–products.
Use of Superphosphate in New Zealand
Superphosphate is locally produced in New Zealand, being a fertiliser it is used for its intended
purpose of fertilising plants to stunt growth. Superphosphate is produced by reacting local rock and
sulfuric acid, to form a 'superphosphate' which reacts with our local soils in the hope to increase the
growth within these plants. Mixed with the soil, the superphosphate allows for optimal growth
within the plants – producing the most favourable crops. It has these effects on crops as the soils
within New Zealand are very low in phosphate, which is one of the critical nutrients needed to
stimulate plant growth. While the other important nutrients are found the soils, very small amounts
of phosphate are present. Therefore we have to externally add 'superphosphate' to provide the vital
nutrients needed for stimulation in plant growth, to give the plant a source of phosphate allowing for
optimum growth.

Essay about Determination of the Composition of Cobalt...
Determination of the Composition of Cobalt Oxalate Hydrate Experiment 12 Robbie Kinsey
Partner: Debnil Chowdhury Chem. 1312–D TA's: Russell Dondero & Sylvester Mosley February 9,
2000 Purpose The purpose of this lab was to determine the percent cobalt and oxalate by mass, and
with that information, the empirical formula for cobalt oxalate hydrate, using the general formula
Coa(C2O4)b.cH2O. Procedure The powdered cobalt oxalate hydrate was weighed to about 0.3 g and
placed in a pre–weighed crucible. The crucible and the cobalt oxalate were then heated until the
cobalt oxalate decomposed into a stable, black solid, or Co3O4. Once the crucible was sufficiently
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
|trial one |trial two | |Mass of cobalt oxalate hydrate |.3012g |.3027g | |Mass of residue (Co3O4)
|.1777g |.1752g | |Percent Co in Cobalt Oxalate Hydrate |43.33% |42.509% | |Average percent
|42.92% | | | | | |Standardization of KMnO4 Solution | | |Concentration of Standard Na2C2O4
|.1mol/L | |Volume of Na2C2O4 dispensed |15.0mL | |Volume of KMnO4 required |34.3mL |
|Molarity of KMnO4 solution |.0175 mol/L | | | | | |Determination of Oxalate | | | |Mass of cobalt
oxalate |.3091g |.3031g | |Volume of KMnO4 used |38.6mL |37.1mL | |Percent oxalate in cobalt

Chemical Reaction Lab Report
Apparatus
In this lab we used a bunsen burner to heat our chemicals and create a chemical reaction.
We used a test tube to hold our zinc and 6 M HCl. We also used a test tube to mix our chemicals
together. Test tube racks were used to hold all of our test tubes. To add drops of chemicals to
solutions or other chemicals droppers were used. For our copper and sulfur experiment we used a
crucible to hold the chemicals while they were heated. We also used a ring stand ring and a triangle
to hold our crucible above the fire. A clay triangle was employed to hold the crucible above the
bunsen burner's flame. To take the hot crucible off of the clay triangle crucible tongs were utilized.
Procedure
A.) A Reaction Between the Elements Copper and Sulfur A 2 inch copper wire was obtained. The
first observation of just the copper wire was mad and recorded. Then a small coil was made by
wrapping it around the circumference of a pencil. Afterwards it was placed in a crucible and a
sufficient ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Sodium oxalate is also known as Na2C2O4. Following this step, ten drops of of 6 M sulfuric acid
was added and mixed thoroughly by using a swirling motion to agitate the solution and combine the
components. Proceeding this, one to two drops of 0.1 M KMnO4 was incorporated to the solution. If
no obvious reaction takes place then the test tube should be warmed by placing it into a warm water
bath. Subsequently after, another clean test tube was obtained. three milliliters of 0.1 M of sodium
hydrogen sulfite was placed into a test tube, to this one milliliter of 10 M sodium hydroxide was
added and the solution was mixed thoroughly. To this mixture one drop of 0.1 M KMnO4 was also
added. Lastly, in this sets of investigations, one to two crystals of potassium permanganate was
added to one milliliter of six M HCl. Any reactions that take place were noted. If any gas was
produced it was

The Effect of Volcanic Eruptions on Climate
The Effect of Volcanic Eruptions on Climate
Introduction
Recently there has been a lot of research in the field of climate change, and much of it is focused on
anthropogenic affects on climate. However, there has also been a great deal of research focused on
natural Earth processes and how they affect the climate (Robock 2000). One natural process which
significantly impacts climate is volcanic eruptions. Volcanic eruptions affect the climate of the earth
in many ways (Zielinski et al 1997). Volcanic ash ejected during eruptions effect climate by
reflecting solar rays back into space, and thus cooling the surface of the Earth. Another way
volcanoes affect the Earth's climate, is the emission of many different types of volcanic gasses. ...
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Compared to the total anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gasses, the effect CO2 and H2O
vapour have on global warming is relatively low, but spikes in greenhouse gas levels can be seen
when major eruptions occur (Cassadevall et al 1983). During the Mt St Helens eruption in 1980,
Cassadevall et al (1983) used a gas chromatograph to measure the average daily emissions of CO2
gas which he combined to form the average monthly emissions. He recorded that for six months
following the eruption over 5000 metric tons of CO2 were released per day then after six months the
emission rates slowly declined. The CO2 and H2O vapour released during eruptions does have a
marginal effect on the climate, but by far the most influential gases on Earth's climate are the
sulfuric gasses released.
Effects of Volcanic SO2 on Climate
The most common sulfuric gas released from volcanic eruptions is SO2. The effect that SO2 has on
climate is much more complicated than other volcanic gasses such as CO2 and H2O vapour. SO2
also affects Earth's climate much more severely than volcanic ash, CO2 and H2O gasses (Zeilinski
et al 1997). The kind of effect SO2 has on the climate is directly related to its concentrations in the
atmosphere and thus the amount of volcanic activity during a given time frame (Robock 2000).
When SO2 is released from volcanoes, it readily reacts with H2O and OH– compounds to form
sulfuric acid H2SO4. Sulfuric acid acts like a typical aerosol reflecting solar rays back

The Preparation Of Grignard Reagents
The preparation of Grignard reagents typically involves the reaction of an alkyl halide or aryl halide
with magnesium metal in an anhydrous ethereal solvent. This reaction results in the formation of a
carbon–magnesium complex within an alkyl magnesium halide or aryl magnesium halide. Grignard
reagents are considered to be strong nucleophiles and strong bases that have the ability to react with
acidic proton sources and carbonyl functional groups. The preparation of Grignard reagents must be
conducted in aprotic solvents to minimize interactions with strong proton sources that may result in
undesired products. Furthermore, the solvent chosen for the reaction must dissolve everything in
solution. Commonly used solvents in Grignard reactions are diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran
(THF). They are preferred over hexane solvents due to the presence of an oxygen atom which
contains a lone electron pair that attracts the partially positive magnesium metal, resulting in
increased stability. As mentioned previously, Grignard reagents are strong nucleophiles. Thus, there
is a possibility that they may react with other molecules in side–reactions. One such side–reaction
involves the Grignard reagent reacting with molecular oxygen (O2) to form a peroxide molecule. In
another side–reaction, the Grignard reagent may react with carbon dioxide (CO2) to form a
carboxylate molecule. These side–reactions can pose a problem since molecular oxygen and carbon
dioxide are in excess under normal

Science Investigatory Project
Saccharification of Pineapple Ananas comosus peelings through Dilute Acid Hydrolysis
Rhoy M. Capul Ma. Michelle Carmel O. Aquino Alia Jenine S. Caceres
San Pablo City National High School San Pablo City
Mrs. Glory M. Serrano Research Adviser
A Science Investigatory Project in fulfillment of Research project S.Y. 2010–2011 Abstract
The pineapple is one of the leading products in the Philippines, as it thrives in tropical climates.
However, the pineapple peelings have low commercial value and are therefore merely thrown away,
contributing to the Philippines waste problem.
This study entitled "Saccharification of Pineapple Ananas comosus peelings through Dilute Acid
Hydrolysis" was ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A clear aqueous solution of carbohydrates to be analyzed is placed in a test tube, then phenol and
sulfuric acid are added.The solution turns a yellow– orange color as a result of the interaction
between the carbohydrates and phenol. The sulfuric acid causes all non– reducing sugars to be
converted to reducing sugars so that this method determines the total sugar present. This method is
non– stoichemetric and so it is necessary to prepare a calibration curve using a series of standard
known carbohydrate concentration (http://www.merriam–webster.com/dictionary/phenol–sulfuric
acid method).
Dilute Acid Hydrolysis is a process of hydrolyzing lignocellulosic materials by subjecting dried
lignocellulosic material in a reactor to a catalyst comprised of a dilute solution of a strong acid to
lower the activation energy of cellulose hydrolysis and ultimately obtain higher sugar yields
(http://www.merriam–webster.com/dictionary/dilute acid hydrolysis).
Statement of the Problem This study aims to saccharify pineapple Ananas comosus peelings through
dilute acid hydrolysis.
Specifically, the study attempts:
1. To know whether the dilute acid hydrolysis is an effective way of yielding concentration of sugar
from pineapple peelings;
2. To determine whether the temperature has an effect on the concentration of sugar;
3. To determine whether the length of time of reacion can affect the concentration of sugar that will
be obtained.

Recycling Of Recycling
Introduction
In today's world recycling has become a major benefactor to preserving the environment and the
world. One product, among many, being recycled has shown a huge increase in energy savings and
costs, and that is aluminum. Using aluminum can pieces with KOH (potassium hydroxide) and other
reactants will eventually lead to the production of alum.
Materials and Methods Starting the experiment, 1.0184 g of aluminum pieces were weighed out on
an analytical balance. The aluminum was then placed in a 250 mL beaker containing 50.1 mL of
1.4M potassium hydroxide. The solution was then heated on a hot plate set at 80ºC for
approximately 35 minutes with a spin of 240 RPM. At the end of the 35 minutes, the solution has
become black in color and many of the pieces have broken down. The beaker was rinsed with 10 mL
of distilled water after the mixture was poured through the Büchner funnel of the aspirator. The
filtrate was put into a clean 250 mL beaker to be added with 20.5 mL of 6.0M sulfuric acid, stirred
slowly when added. The reaction was then put into a 1L beaker ¾ full of ice and water to kick start
the reaction into making the alum crystals. The stirring rod was used to help activate the crystals.
Once the making of the crystals had finished, it was poured into the filtration apparatus to separate
the crystals from the solution. While the crystals were drying, the watch glass was weighed at
57.1161 g on the analytical balance. After the crystals where dry, they were

Lab Report: Chemical Reactions Of Copper
Chemical Reactions of Copper Introduction: The objective of this lab was to determine the percent
recovery, or percent yield, of copper. After going through multiple reactions with nitric acid, sodium
hydroxide, heat, sulfuric acid, and magnesium, the metallic copper was regenerated. The starting
0.021g of copper changed from solid to liquid to solid to liquid, and finally ended at a solid state.
The original copper was 0.021g and the ending copper was 0.008g creating a 38.10% recovery.
Results + Calculations: During the lab the staring copper reacted with 10 drops of nitric acid,
creating a dark green liquid. Distilled water was added to increase the volume and turned the liquid
into an electric blue. Then 10 drops of sodium hydroxide

Comparision Between Sulfuric Acid And Detergents
(a) When dry pH paper was placed over household ammonia, the paper quickly turned a dark blue,
indicating that it was a base.
(b) When moist pH paper was placed over household ammonia, the paper turned dark blue faster
than when dry, still indicating that it was a base.
(c) When pH paper was placed over bleach, the paper turned blue, which indicated that it was a
base.
(d) When pH paper was over ammonium carbonate, the paper turned dark blue even faster than the
moist paper over household ammonia, indicating that it was a base.
Most cleaning agents and detergents are basic because the alkalinity of the substance attacks fatty
and oily substances, and then breaks them into components that are much easier to get out of a
surface or fabric.
When you mix baking soda with vinegar, the carbonate ion in the baking ... Show more content on
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However, this would result in a different salt being formed than before.
2NaHCO_3+H_2 〖SO〗_4 □(→┴yields ) 〖Na〗_2 〖SO〗_4+2H_2 O+2CO_2
Compounds that contained a metal with a higher change had a higher conductivity. As you move to
the right along the periodic table, the metals get more and more conductive, and then conductivity
drops off as soon as you get to metalloids and then nonmetals. For an element to conduct electricity,
it must contain electrons that are free to move [1], and as you move to the right through the metals,
the number of these electrons increases. The conductivity values for DI and tap water are much
lower than the conductivity of the compounds, and this is due to less concentration of ions in the
water.
A possible experiment could be that you take a compound, such as NaCl, and add it to deionized
water to create different concentration levels and record the conductivity in each in order to form a

The Copper Basin
The Copper Basin of southeastern Tennessee is an area that is climatically unique with a rich history
rooted in copper mining. It is thought that man is responsible for the total destruction of the
environment over this large area, but it is mostly contributed to the exclusive location. The Copper
Basin was susceptible to negative environmental effects due to its topographical, geological,
climatic, edaphic, and meteorological location. However, the copper mining had a transformative
effect on the surrounding lands that of which are still recovering.
The Ducktown Basin, or Copper Basin, is located in the southeast corner of Polk County, Tennessee.
It is a bowl–like configuration within the southern Appalachian Mountains with elevations ranging
from about 1600 to 1800 feet above sea level. Its rolling hills and knobby terrain are drained by the
Ocoee River watershed and numerous minor creeks, surrounded by the Cherokee National Forest.
The river's rock–strewn course through the gorge was never navigable, adding to the access
problem, but later used for recreation and energy. These waters meet the Hiwassee, a major tributary
of the Tennessee River. The Basin area has abundant moisture and mild temperatures, rarely exposed
to drought.
The Cherokee Indians of the Copper Basin were farmers who produced some copper for trade. With
the Treaty of New Echota in 1836, they gave up much of their land. Others were removed by the
U.S. Army in 1938 during the Trail of Tears. However, some

Dimethoxybenzene Using Tert-Butanol And Sulfuric Acid
In this experiment, we alkylated P–dimethoxybenzene using tert–butanol and sulfuric acid in order
to find the major product of the reaction. Through this experiment, we obtained about 390.2 mg
product which equates to about 88.85 percent yield. This yield is very high, even in comparison to
alkylations conducted by other undergraduate students such as Jonathan Melville who had a yield of
62% (1). Furthermore, the melting range was 76–85°C, differing from the reference melting point of
102–104°C by almost 20 degrees. Moreover, this melting range is very broad indicating that the
product is not pure and these purities could likely lower the melting range. In order to determine the
major product of the alkylation, an NMR test was run to figure

Synthesis of 3-Nitrobenzaldehyde Essay
Abstract
This experiment is about the synthesis of 3–nitrobenzaldehyde through nitration. The nitration of
benzaldehyde is an example of an electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction, in which a proton of
an aromatic ring is replaced by a nitro group. Many aromatic substitution reactions are known to
occur when an aromatic substrate is allowed to react with a suitable electrophilic reagent, and many
other groups besides nitro may be introduced into the ring. Although the reaction produced a low
yield at the end, the yield is calculated from the reaction and limiting reagent.
Keywords: electrophilic aromatic substitution, nitration, aldehyde, nitrating group
Introduction
Electrophilic substitution happens in many of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Stage 1 of the mechanism of nitration
As the NO2+ ion approached the delocalised electrons in the benzene, those electrons were strongly
attracted toward the positive charge.
Two electrons from the delocalised system were used to form a new bond with the NO2+ ion.
Because those two electrons aren't a part of the delocalised system any longer, the delocalisation
was partly broken, and in the process the ring gained a positive charge.
Stage two
Figure 2. Stage 2 of the nitration mechanism
The second stage involved a hydrogensulphate ion, HSO4–, which was produced at the same time as
the NO2+ ion. This removed a hydrogen from the ring to form sulphuric acid – the catalyst had
therefore been regenerated. The electrons which originally joined the hydrogen to the ring were now
used to re–establish the delocalised system.
Table 1. Observations from the experiment proper
Observations:
89 mL conc. H2SO4
Clear solution
+ 45 mL fuming HNO3
Clear solution
+ 10.2 mL benzaldehyde
Solution turns yellow if stirred continuously while adding benzaldehyde. But solution will produce
red orange fumes and increase heat.

+ ice
White fluffy precipitate
After vacuum filtration
White gum–like precipitate
+ 125 mL diethyl ether
Precipitate dissolves and solution turns into pale yellow color
+ 125 mL 5% NaHCO3
Immiscible with solution. Golden yellow in color.
While the experiment was being executed,

Back Titration Lab Report
Abstract The concentration of ethanol in vodka was determined by back titration. A known amount
of excess potassium chromate was added to the vodka sample to convert ethanol into acetic acid by
oxidation. The amount of leftover chromate was determined by titration with iron (II) solution,
prepared from dissolution of ferrous ammonium sulfate. Using the amount of chromate added to the
vodka solution, the amount of chromate reacted was determined and used to find the amount of
ethanol in the sample. A potentiometer in the mV mode was used to create first and second
derivative curves for determining end points. The concentration of ethanol determined was 39.91%,
with standard deviation of 0.13%. The percent error was 0.22%, with the true concentration being
40.00%.
Introduction The consumption of alcoholic beverages, which has increased, has been presenting
several health complications in recent years. The center for disease control explained that the act of
drinking in order to become intoxicated has become more popular recently, and that this has led to
increases in alcohol poisoning, high blood pressure, stroke, liver disease, and neurological damage,
as well as both intentional and unintentional injuries [1]. Although alcoholic beverages contain
many different ingredients, the most significant is ethanol, as it is most commonly responsible for
the health problems mentioned above. This study's primary focus was to identify the concentration
of ethanol in an unknown

Copper Cycle Lab Report
The Copper Cycle
Alexes Montalvo Chem 1500–10 September 26, 2012
The Copper Cycle
Introduction:
The Copper Cycle is a popular experiment used to determine if an element, in this instance, copper,
reverts to its elemental form after a chain of reactions. This experiment is very dangerous because of
the reactions between the strong acids and bases. In this experiment I performed a series of reactions
starting with copper metal and nitric acid to form copper (II) nitrate. Then I reacted copper and
several other solutions such as, sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, ammonium hydroxide, and
hydrochloric acid to form precipitates. In conclusion my percent recovery ... Show more content on
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If you see a deep blue color add more zinc powder until there is no change in color of the solution in
the test tube.
XI. Inside the fume hood, add a good amount of Hydrochloric Acid, HCl(aq), to the solution in the
250 ml beaker to remove excess zinc. (accelerate reaction by heating if the reaction appears slow)
XII. Take the 250 ml beaker to your lab bench. Set up a gravity filtration with a plastic funnel,
folded wet filter paper, and an Erlenmeyer flask. Pour the content in the 250 ml beaker slowly
through the filter paper. Wash the filter paper with deionized water. Dispose of the filtrate in the
proper labeled waste container.
XIII. Carefully remove the copper metal from the filter paper onto the watch glass. (with a spatula)
Place a 400 ml beaker on a hot plate contained with water. Carefully place the watch glass before
the water boils to dry the copper metal. (Use the tongs to handle the hot watch glass)
XIV. Record your observations of the dried, cooled copper metal and weigh the recovered copper.
Data Collection and Observations:
I started with elemental copper metal and then reactions occur step by step as follows:

Notes On Properties And Formation Of Sulfur Oxides
LaGuardia Community College – CUNY
SCC201 General Chemistry I
Properties and Formation of Sulfur Oxides
Taylor Radigan
12/07/2014
Instructor: Dr. D. Miller Background Information
"Sulfur is capable of forming two common oxides, SO2 and SO3. One question that we might ask is
whether the direct reaction between sulfur and oxygen leads to the formation of SO2, SO3, or a
mixture of the two. This question has practical significance because SO3 can go onto react with
water to form sulfuric acid, H2SO4, which is produced industrially on a very large scale. Consider
also that the answer to this question may depend on the relative amount of each element that is
present and the temperature at which the reaction ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In concentrations above 25% of air by volume, oxygen renders many organic compounds highly
flammable. Oxygen is required by most living organisms for cellular respiration as well as for most
forms of combustion. It is very commonly used in the steel industry and to create a large number of
chemicals. In the form of ozone (O3), it forms a thin layer around the earth, protecting it from the
ultraviolet radiation of the sun. (Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility – Office of Science
Education, n.d.) When oxygen is reacted with acetylene (C2H2), the reaction produces a
tremendously hot flame used for welding. (Royal Society of Chemistry, n.d.)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is one of the products of the reaction between sulfur and oxygen. At room
temperature, it is a colorless gas that has the odor of burnt matches. Sulfur dioxide mixes with
atmospheric water vapor and is a key component of acid rain. (Thompson, 2003) It is the third most
common gas produced during volcanic eruptions, behind water vapor (H2O) and carbon dioxide
(CO2). (U.S. Geological Survey, 2010) In large volcanic eruptions, sulfur dioxide is converted to
sulfuric acid and forms fine sulfate aerosols. These aerosols reflect the sun's radiation back into
space and result in in cooling of the earth's surface below them. (U.S. Geological Survey,

Condumetric and Gravemetric Lab Report Essay
Conductimetric Titration and Gravimetric Determination of a Precipitate
Objective:
* Measure the conductivity of the reaction between sulfuric acid and barium hydroxide * use
conductivity values to determine equivalence point * measure mass of a product to determine
equivalence point gravimetrically * calculate molar concentration of barium hydroxide solution
Procedure:
* First, combine 10.0 mL of the Ba(OH)2 solution with 50 mL of distilled water. Then, measure out
60 mL of 0.100 M H2SO4. Set up a conductivity probe and open programs by connecting to logger
pro. After that, start to titrate with increments of 1.0 mL. Keep titrating with smaller increments until
it is pretty close to the 100 microsiemens/cm mark. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The reactant ions reacted and decreased as more product formed. By measuring the conductivity
throughout, the equivalence point was determined. With the equivalence point and the
stoichiometric relationship, the molarity of barium hydroxide can be determined. Another way to
calculate the molar concentration of barium hydroxide would be to calculate the number of moles of
the insoluble barium sulfate by gravimetric determination.
Data Analysis: 1. 7.6 10–4 mol H2SO4 2. 0.076 M Ba(OH)2 3. 0.0008351 mol BaSO4 4. 0.0835 M
Ba(OH)2 5. Equivalence Point: 24% error, Gravimetric determination: 17% error. The gravimetric
determination was more accurate because an exact amount of precipitate was formed.
Conclusion:
In this lab an attempt was made to determine the concentration of a Ba(OH)2 solution by using the
conductimetrically determined equivalence point of the reaction between Ba(OH)2 and H2SO4 and
by gravimetric determination. The molarity using the equivalence point was determined to be 0.076
M, with a percent error of 24% (actual value was 0.100 M). The molarity using gravimetric
determination was 0.0835, an error of 17%. One possible error is the presence of bubbles in the
buret. Bubbles would have caused the buret reading to be too high, resulting in a larger equivalence
point. Another possible error deals with the colloidal nature of barium hydroxide due to its relatively
low solubility. The colloidal barium hydroxide would make it

Lab Report On Chemical Tests
1.4 Physical Tests
1.4.1 Organoleptic Tests
This will be used to determine the color, odor, and physical appearance of the extracted substance.
1.4.2 Solubility Tests
Six hundred milligrams of fucoidan isolate will be weighed and divided into 6 tubes, 100 mg each.
It will then be dissolved in 1mL of each individual solvent such as distilled water, ethyl alcohol,
chloroform, 1M Hydrochloric acid, 1M Sodium Hydroxide, and Diethyl ether.
1.5 Chemical Tests
The chemical tests that will be performed would be fucose test to determine the fucose content,
uronic acid test to determine the presence of uronic acid, sulfate ion tests to determine the presence
of sulfate, carbohydrate tests to determine presence of carbohydrates and reducing sugars and,
protein test to determine the contaminations present in the fucoidan.
1.5.1 Screening for Carbohydrates
1.5.1.1 Molisch's Test
2mL of Sulfuric acid will be added to the isolate and 0.2mL alpha napthol. The formation of bluish
violet zone indicated the presence of carbohydrates.
1.5.1.2 Fehling's Test
Fehling's solution (2.5 mL each of Fehling's A&B) will be boiled in a test tube. Equal amount of the
isolate will be added and boiled again. The formation of brick red precipitate indicated the presence
of reducing sugars.
1.5.1.3 Benedict's Test
5 mL Benedict's reagent will be added to the isolate and heated. The appearance of red precipitate
indicated the presence of reducing sugar.
1.5.2 Fucose Test
Free fucose will be

The Concentration Of Vitamin C
Vitamin C Investigation
Aim: I want to find out whether the concentration of Vitamin C in Golden Circle Pineapple juice
changes over time.
Hypothesis: My hypothesis for this investigation will argue that the Vitamin C level in Golden
Circle Pineapple juice will decrease over time.
Chemical information and safety surrounding the use of these substances.
Previous scientific work: CHEEKY NANDOS
Vitamin C: Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water–soluble vitamin, which is needed by the body to
form collagen in bones, cartilage, muscle, and blood vessels. Dietary sources of vitamin C include
fruits and vegetables, particularly citrus fruits such as oranges.
Severe deficiency of vitamin C is known to cause scurvy. Many uses for vitamin C have been
proposed, but evidence of benefit in scientific studies is lacking. In particular, research on asthma,
cancer, and diabetes remains inconclusive, and a lack of benefit has been found for the prevention of
cataracts or heart disease.
The use of vitamin C in the prevention or treatment of colds remains controversial. Extensive
research has been conducted. Overall, vitamin C lacked an effect on the development of colds and
on cold symptoms. However, the duration of the cold shortened slightly. Notably, people living in
extreme circumstances, including soldiers in the subarctic, skiers, and marathon runners, had a 50%
decrease in the risk of developing a cold. This area merits additional research and may be of
particular interest to

Chemical Oxygen Demand
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater 5210 BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN
DEMAND (BOD)*#(1) 5220 CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)*#(2) 5220 A. Introduction
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is defined as the amount of a specified oxidant that reacts with the
sample under controlled conditions. The quantity of oxidant consumed is expressed in terms of its
oxygen equivalence. Because of its unique chemical properties, the dichromate ion (Cr2O72–) is the
specified oxidant in Methods Section 5220B, Section 5220C, and Section 5220D; it is reduced to the
chromic ion (Cr3+) in these tests. Both organic and inorganic components of a sample are subject to
oxidation, but in most cases the organic component predominates and is ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Do not use the test for samples containing more than 2000 mg Cl–/L. Techniques designed to
measure COD in saline waters are available.1,2 Halide interferences may be removed by
precipitation with silver ion and filtration before digestion. This approach may introduce substantial
errors due to the occlusion and carrydown of COD matter from heterogenous samples. Ammonia
and its derivatives, in the waste or generated from nitrogen–containing organic matter, are not
oxidized. However, elemental chlorine reacts with these compounds. Hence, corrections for chloride
interferences are difficult. Nitrite (NO2–) exerts a COD of 1.1 mg O2/mg NO2––N. Because
concentrations of NO2– in waters rarely exceed 1 or 2 mg NO2––N/L, the interference is considered
insignificant and usually is ignored. To eliminate a significant interference due to NO2–, add 10 mg
sulfamic acid for each mg NO2––N present in the sample volume used; add the same amount of
sulfamic acid to the reflux vessel containing the distilled water blank. Reduced inorganic species
such as ferrous iron, sulfide, manganous manganese, etc., are oxidized quantitatively under the test
conditions. For samples containing significant levels of these species, stoichiometric oxidation can
be assumed from known initial concentration of the interfering species and

Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Formal Lab Essay
Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
Objective
The objective of this experiment was to illustrate electrophilic aromatic substitution by synthesizing
p–nitroanilide (as well as ortho) from acetanilide by nitration. The para form was separated from the
ortho form based on solubility properties using recrystallization techniques.
Synthetic equations:
Physical Properties & Hazards of Reagents/Products: (all taken from Sigma–Aldrich website)
Acetanilide
MM = 135.16 g/mol
Melting point = 113–115°C
Hazards: acute toxicity
Sulfuric acid
MM = 98.08 g/mol
Boiling point = 290°C
Density = 1.840 g/mL
Hazards: corrosive to metals and skin, serious eye damage
Nitric acid
MM = 63.01 g/mol
Boiling point = 120.5°C
Density = ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Discussion Aromatic compounds can undergo electrophilic substitution reactions. In these reactions,
the aromatic ring acts as a nucleophile (an electron pair donor) and reacts with an electrophilic
reagent (an electron pair acceptor) resulting in the replacement of a hydrogen on the aromatic ring
with the electrophile. Due to the fact that the conjugated 6π–electron system of the aromatic ring is
so stable, the carbocation intermediate loses a proton to sustain the aromatic ring rather than reacting
with a nucleophile. Ring substituents strongly influence the rate and position of electrophilic attack.
Electron–donating groups on the benzene ring speed up the substitution process by stabilizing the
carbocation intermediate. Electron–withdrawing groups, however, slow down the aromatic
substitution because formation of the carbocation intermediate is more difficult. The electron–
withdrawing group withdraws electron density from a species that is already positively charged
making it very electron deficient. Therefore, electron–donating groups are considered to be

"activating" and electron–withdrawing groups are "deactivating". Activating substituents direct
incoming groups to either the "ortho" or "para" positions. Deactivating substituents, with the
exception of the halogens, direct incoming groups to the "meta" position. The experiment described
above was an example of a specific electrophilic aromatic

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