This document discusses various research methods and design concepts. It addresses the differences between exploratory and formal studies, experimental and ex post facto research designs, and descriptive and causal studies. It also discusses key concepts like sampling, controlling variables, correlation vs causation, and asymmetrical relationships. The document uses examples and references a textbook to explain these research methodology topics.

1. RUNNING HEADER: BUSINESS 642 WEEK #2 ASSIGNMENT
Business 642- Week #2
Charles M. Arena Jr.
Business 642- Business Research Method and Tools
Professor Alston Mason
August 26th, 2012

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BUSINESS 642- WEEK #2 ASSIGNMENT
What are the most prudent decisions she can make about her responsibilities to herself and
others?
Anytime that a person has to make a decision based on what is ethical or unethical there
is always a lot of gray area. What one person sees as ethical another person sees as unethical and
vice versa. Unethical activities are pervasive and include violating nondisclosure agreements,
breaking participant confidentiality, misrepresenting results, deceiving people, using invoicing
irregularities, and avoiding legal liability (Cooper &Schindler, 2011). By taking the information
she found in the folder she is violating the new code of ethics set by her company. Also the
manager has to consider the fact that the information she has in her possession is a rough draft
and the validity of the data. If the manager decided to use the information not only would she be
risking her job but also her reputation. The manager runs the risk of having her staff and
coworkers turn against her. The most prudent decision she can make to herself and others in this
situation is to return the document to the airline. The manager should then inform her immediate
supervisor of the incidents along with the company’s ethicist officer.
What are the implications of those decisions even if there is no violation of law or
regulation?
If the manager decides to not use the information and returns it to the airlines, she is
acting ethically. The manager will know that she did the right thing and feel good about herself.
Her company may reward her for behavior either through a monetary increase or award. If the
manager decides to use the information for her benefit she is in clear violation of the company’s
code of ethics. This violation could result in termination. If she is terminated for unethical
conduct she runs the risk of ruining her career and reputation.

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Exploratory and Formal Studies
The biggest differences between exploratory and formal studies are the degree of
structure and the immediate objective of the study (Cooper &Schindler, 2011). Exploratory
studies tend toward less structure with the objective of discovering future research tasks.
Exploratory studies purpose is to explore the proposed hypothesis and question the research.
Where exploratory studies leave off, formal studies begin. Formals studies are important and
necessary to test the hypothesis and data the exploratory studies gathered (Cooper &Schindler,
2011).
Experimental and Ex Post Facto Research Designs
When researchers conduct an experiment, they normally try to control and/or manipulate
the variables in the study. Researchers use variables to conduct changes, or as the control
keeping with the research objectives in order to test their hypothesis. An experimental design is
essential when trying to prove how one variable can affect the other variables or even the
outcome (Cooper & Schindler, 2011). Experimental designs are often used to provide support
for hypothesis causation. An ex post facto design is when the researchers have no control over
the manipulation of the variables. An ex post facto design can only be successful if the
researcher does not influence the variables; this prevents a bias from being introduced. The
researcher is limited to holding factors constant by judicious selection of subjects according to
strict sampling procedures and by statistical manipulation of findings (Cooper and Schindler,
2011).
Descriptive and Casual Studies
In descriptive studies the researcher is trying to answer the question to the who, what,
where, when and how much questions (Cooper and Schindler, 2011). In casual-explanatory

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studies the researcher is trying to understand and learn the why; why one variable produces
changes to another variable (Cooper and Schindler, 2011).
Establishing causality is difficult, whether conclusions have been derived inductively or
deductively. Explain and elaborate on the implications of this statement
Causation is when an action or occurrence can cause another. For example, the essential
element of causation can be explained by the following if A “produces” B or A “forces” B to
occur. This means that in order for B to occur A must also be present and if A is not present B
cannot occur (Cooper and Schindler, 2011).
Why is ascribing causality more difficult when conclusions have been reached through
induction?
Induction is when you draw a conclusion based on one or more particular facts or
pieces of evidence (Cooper and Schindler, 2011). When using induction the researcher comes
to the conclusion that one variable or thing is tied to another variable or thing based on the
evidence in front of you. When using induction it is hard to determine whether the information
in front of you is correct or whether the conclusion are accurate without looking at all the
research available (Cooper and Schindler, 2011).
Correlation does not imply Causation
Correlation is when two or more variables share a relationship. Examples of correlations
are drugs and crime or how increased smoking can lead to cancer. An example of correlations
in business work; is dress down Fridays or employee incentives. With dress down Fridays,
people can wear jeans and work is normally less stressful. Since most employees do not want to
miss dress down Fridays the rate of absenteeism is less. The same correlation can be tied to

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employee incentives. Employees work harder with the hope they can get free movie tickets, gift
cards or paid time off.
Using yourself as the subject, give an example of each of the following asymmetrical
relationships
Stimulus-Response
A stimulus response is when an event or change results in a response from some subject
(Cooper and Schindler, 2011). An example of stimulus-response that has happened to me is a
recent change that has occurred in my company’s cell phone policy. The new policy bans cell
phones from being in the building. Due to the new rules I have to now place all my orders prior
to coming to work.
Property-Disposition
Property-disposition is when an existing property causes a disposition (Cooper and
Schindler, 2011). An example of property-disposition is how my attitude toward savings has
changed since my divorce. I have refocused my 401k and saving plan to help pay off attorney
fees and debts.
Disposition-Behavior
Disposition-behavior is when a disposition causes a certain behavior (Cooper and
Schindler, 2011). An example of disposition-behavior is my work ethic and my ability to go
above and beyond at work. I believe that hard work eventually pays off and gets you where you
want to go. It’s because of this that on my days off I often pick up the phone or even work from
home.
Property-Behavior

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Property-behavior is when an existing property causes a specific behavior. An example
of property-behavior is me wanting to get back into the gym and in better shape.
Why not use more control variables rather than depend on randomization as the means of
controlling extraneous variables?
Randomization is a process that assigns participants or variables by chance, to either a
control group or variable group. Using randomization allows for all variables to react with each
other giving the better and more effective search results (Cooper and Schindler, 2011). By
controlling each variable the researcher is able to manipulate how the experiment goes. For
example, by controlling A and saying it can only react with B and C the researcher can only use
the results of A with B and C, while if you allow the variables to react with each other via
randomization A may react with D and E, providing different results which may change the
results of the study.
Researchers seek casual relationships by either experimental or ex post facto research
designs. In what ways are these two approaches similar?
Both experimental and ex post facto researches are similar because both methods rely on
how one variable affects another variable (Cooper and Schindler, 2011). Both designs have
independent and dependant variables. In both experimental and ex post facto research designs a
control group is used.
In what ways are they different?
Experimental and ex post facto designs are different in a few ways. In experimental
design the researcher is able to manipulate the variables. Experimental design randomly
assigned group members. In ex post facto designs intact groups are used and the research is not
manipulated. With an ex post facto research design the variables are fixed, and the researcher

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has no control over the variables. They are unable to manipulate the variables to make them react
how they may like them to react, only to observe what happens.
Sampling
Sampling is used by researchers to get an idea of the entire population. Sampling has
many benefits, since the researchers are targeting a smaller group; they have more control on the
sampling group. Another benefit of sampling is statistical manipulations are much easier with
smaller data sets, and it is easier to avoid human error when inputting and analyzing the data. In
order to conduct this experiment and get an unbiased outcome I would choose convenience
sampling. Convenience sampling is a method of drawing representative data by selecting the
people because of the selecting units of their availability (Cooper and Schindler, 2011).
Convenience sampling would work because we are sampling a small group of computer
technicians. After surveying the technicians I could analyze the results and determine what the
moral of the computer technicians was. By choosing convenience sampling I could choose
whomever I would like to survey, among the computer technicians, without having to have all of
the data required for the simple random sampling.

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References
References:
Cooper, Donald & Schindler, Pamela, 2011, Business Research Methods 11th Ed., New York,
N.Y., McGraw-Hill.