2. From drooling dogs & pecking pigeons to complex
human behaviour
Adequacy of behaviourist perspectives to explain:
Reading?
Problem solving?
Friendliness?
Aggression?
Social Cognitive Theory:
Social,
Cognitive AND
Behavioural factors play important roles in learning.
3. Looking Back......Behaviourism
Emphasis on experimental methods
Focus on variables we can:
Observe
Measure
Manipulate ( Drooling dogs, & pecking pigeons)
CC: Respondent: Pavlov
Autonomic; involuntary, reflexive
Contiguous learning: stimulus : response
OC: Operant: Watson/Thorndike/Skinner
ABC
Environmental experiences and behaviour
Neglects:
Influence of social and cognitive factors
4. Social and Cognitive factors in learning?
Social Factors? Cognitive Factors?
Students observing their Students’ expectations for
parents’ achievement success
behaviour
What social factors have been What cognitive factors have
important in your learning? been important in your
learning?
5. Moving Forwards
Albert Bandura
When students learn, they cognitively
“represent” or
“transform” experiences
Observational Learning:
Cognitive processing
Of information
Displayed by models
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jJNNtsJmZb4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=688uHz6QYkQ
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cmzDLzqQ-A0
6. Allegra, 4, plays dress-up, Malibu, California.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xnGmjrdN-gU
7. Lily, aged 6
"Britney’s a role model. She’s
fashionable, and she has
movements that I like.
Britney, Christina Aguilera,
Destiny’s Child: They’re
role models ’cause they like
action and movement so
much".
Lily, then 5, shops at Rachel
London's Garden, where
Britney Spears has some of
her clothes designed. Los
Angeles, California
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jppUkWGKgls
8. Albert Bandura
Social Learning Theory
Social Learning in children
how children learn through observation
Can learn new behaviour
Can facilitate learner’s response repertoire
Can inhibit or dis-inhibit responses
9. Bobo Doll Study (1965)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ZXOp5PopIA
16. Observational Learning/ Modelling
PROCESS of Learning In Social Settings
Acquiring skills, strategies and beliefs by observing others
Involves imitation
But not limited to it
Not an exact copy:
But a general “form” applied
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fp8G7IZ29MY&feature=fvw
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5URas0d1B7g
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QcIDIPh1HGY
the functioning of OC in a social context
Behaviour changes
without first being rewarded
for approximations to the behaviour (shaped)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WjpBa_4tXmM
17. Four Fundamentals of the
(Observational, Social Cognitive) Learning
Process:
To Learn:
Attention
= pay attention first : attend to the model
Retention
Remember what you have paid attention to: code in memory
Imagery and language
Store what we have seen as mental images/verbal descriptions
(Re)Production
Translate images into behaviour
Have to have the ability to reproduce
(Reinforcement and) Motivation
Only perform when motivated
Past reinforcement
Promised reinforcement (incentives)
Vicarious reinforcement (seeing others)
18. Comparison :
OC & OL
OC: views
reinforcement is a direct cause of learning (ABC)
OL: views
reinforcement as motivation, not learning
learning occurs:
form a representation of the behaviour in memory,
&
reproduce it
19. Modelling
the process of
observing
then imitating
Direct:
simple imitation
Symbolic:
books; TV; films
Synthesized:
copying portions of behaviour for different purposes
Abstract:
inferring a system of rules
20. Determinants
Reinforcements and punishments:
received by both model and observer
Both appropriate and inappropriate behaviour can
be modelled
Pro-social models have pro-social effects
Consistency is vital regardless
21. To Whom do we Pay Attention?
Perceived Similarity
Similar models
more effective than different
Several models
Same-sex
Peers
22. Alison, 17 years old
"Close to a hundred percent of my close friends have been on some kind of
prescription drug for depression or ADD or something like that. Dexedrine, Adderall,
Paxil, Wellbutrin, Depakote, Neurontin, Effexor, Prozac".
Joyce, 15, Elysia, 14, and Alison, then 14, at their friend's sixteenth birthday party,
Arlington, Virginia.
23. To Whom Do we Pay Attention?
Perceived Competence
Interaction with perceptions of similarity to impact a
model’s effectiveness
More competent is likely to be imitated than less
competent
25. (Re)production &Motivation :
Acquisition and Performance
We may all know more than we show
While learning may have occurred,
it may not be demonstrated (Re/Produced)
until the situation is right (Motivated)
May acquire new skill/behaviour:
but may not perform it until motivated
26. Bandura Believes:
Traditional behavioural views are
accurate, but incomplete
Social Learning Theory
Extended behavioural explanations
Recognised mental/psychological factors
Social COGNITIVE Theory
Links:
the functioning of OC;
in a social setting;
with the role of cognition in processing information
27. Social Cognitive Theory
Emphasises internal processes:
thoughts are always influencing actions and
actions are always influencing thoughts (Bandura,
1986)
Children:
Think about what they do;
about what we want them to do
those thoughts affect what they actually do.
28. Reciprocal Determinism
Human behaviour can be explained
in terms of the reciprocal influences of
Person/Cognitive
Environmental Cognitive
Behavioural factors
Behaviour Environmental
Internal and External factors are important
Interact and influence others
Interaction of forces = reciprocal determinism
29. 3 key aspects
That contribute to the interactive processes in his
ideas about human behaviour and cognitive
functioning:
1 Observation: Vicarious Conditioning
2 Language: Symbolic Processes
3 Self talk: Self regulation
30. Vicarious Conditioning
Observation of the consequences of actions
influences the motivation to enact the behaviour
Others are rewarded or punished
we modify our behaviour
as if we had received the consequences
31. Teaching and the Classroom?
All aspects of the classroom have an impact on learning:
Internal (cognitive and personal); observation and
modelling; vicarious learning.
Social Cognitive Theory can be used for:
Teaching new behaviours/attitudes
Encouraging existing behaviours
Changing inhibitions
Directing Attention
Arousing Emotions
32. Cognitive Behaviour Approaches
Confucius:
“If you give a man a fish...you feed him for a day...If you
teach a man to fish, you feed him for a lifetime...”
Cognitive Behaviour Approaches:
Emphasise getting students to
Monitor
Manage
Regulate their own behaviour
33. Self-Regulation (Model from Santrock, 2008, p 251)
Self Evaluation
and Monitoring
Monitoring
Goal Setting
outcomes and
and Strategic
refining
Planning
strategies
Putting a plan
into Action and
Monitoring it
34. Self-Efficacy
“The belief in one’s capabilities to organise and
execute the sources of action required to manage
prospective situations”
(Bandura, 1986)
Bandura & Schunk (1981) and Schunk (1984)
self- efficacy judgments are thought to affect
achievement by influencing an individual's
choice of activities,
task avoidance,
effort expenditure, and
goal persistence.
35. Sef-Efficacy
Henk and Melnick (1995)
four basic factors to predict how students estimate their
capabilities as a reader:
performance
past success,
amount of effort,
need for assistance,
patterns of progress,
task difficulty,
task persistence, and
belief in the effectiveness of instruction,
observational comparison,
social feedback and
physiological states.
36. Summary
Strengths
Bandura extended behavioural theories:
Internal (cognitive & personal)
External (environmental or contextual) factors influence
learning
Learner makes an active contribution to behaviour change
Focus on the role of observation and imitation heightened
awareness of the impact of such media as TV, video, e-games
Vicarious learning can have both positive and negative
impacts on behaviour
37. Summary
Limitations
The conditions under which vicarious learning occurs
have been questioned:
Why do children imitate the behaviours of some and not
others?
How can you be sure that desirable behaviours modelled
have impact, whilst undesirable behaviours are ignored
and forgotten?
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/soccog/soclrn.htmlhttp://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/youthviolence/chapter4/appendix4bsec2.htmlFrom the report Surgeon General: Put on the homepage...
Compare effect sizes....In statistics, an effect size is a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables in a statistical population, or a sample-based estimate of that quantity. An effect size calculated from data is a descriptive statistic that conveys the estimated magnitude of a relationship without making any statement about whether the apparent relationship in the data reflects a true relationship in the population. In that way, effect sizes complement inferential statistics such as p-values. Among other uses, effect size measures play an important role in meta-analysis studies that summarize findings from a specific area of research, and in statistical power analysesReporting effect sizes is considered good practice when presenting empirical research findings in many fields.[1][2] Effect sizes are particularly prominent in social and medical research. Relative and absolute measures of effect size convey different information, and can be used complementarilyEffect Size: This is a statistical term that refers to the size of a relationship between two variable. Sometimes effect size is known as treatment effect because it is often used when dealing with therapeutic intervantions (ie., this treatment is shown to be more effective than another at treating a specific disorder)." Effect sizes are critical to result interpretation and synthesis across studies. Although statistical significance testing has historically dominated the determination of result importance, modern views emphasize the role of effect sizes and confidence intervals
Observational learning is a powerful means of social learning. It principally occurs through the cognitive processing of information displayed by models. The information can be conveyed verbally, textually, and auditorially, and through actions either by live or symbolic models such as television, movies, and the Internet. Regardless of the medium used to present the modeled activities, the same psychological processes underlie observational learning. These include attention and memory processes directed to establish a conceptual representation of the modeled activity. This representation guides the enactment of observationally learned patterns of conduct. Whether the learned patterns will be performed or not depends on incentive structures and observers' actual and perceived competence to enact the modeled performances. Unlike learning by doing, observational learning does not require enactment of the modeling activities during learning. The complexity of the learning, however, is restricted by the cognitive competence and enactment skills of the learner.Read more: Observational Learning - Cognitive, Enactment, Modeled, Social, Representation, and Activitieshttp://social.jrank.org/pages/451/Observational-Learning.html#ixzz0wMPyjytE
Social learning TheoryExtended behavioural explanationsRecognised the contribution of Mental /psychological factorsExplanation of human behaviour in terms of:CognitiveEnvironmentalBehavioural influences
Cognitive: How I think about something influences my behaviour: which influences the environment in which I operate
Self ObservationKeep tabs on ourselvesJudgmentCompare what we see with a standardSelf-ResponseDid well: RewardDid poorly: PunishingCompensation: delusions of grandeurInactivity: apathy, boredom, depressionEscape: drugs, alcohol, fantasies, suicideOutcome: Self ConceptMeet the standards;lots of rewardsGood self concept
A persons' judgmentof his/her abilities to perform an activity, and the effect this perception has on the on-going and future conduct of the activity.