Contenu connexe
Similaire à Boss5 ppt ch07_ada (1) (7)
Boss5 ppt ch07_ada (1)
- 1. Chapter 7
Inductive Arguments
The aim of this tutorial is to help you learn to
recognize, analyze, and evaluate inductive
arguments.
Copyright © 2021 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
- 2. © McGraw Hill
2
Rube Goldberg Machine
Dave Umberger/AP Images
Constructing a Rube Goldberg Machine
requires inductive logic skills.
- 3. © McGraw Hill
3
Inductive Arguments
Inductive arguments claim that their conclusion probably
follows from the premises.
• As a result, inductive arguments are either stronger or weaker
rather than true or false.
Certain words and phrases are commonly used in
inductive arguments.
• These include "probably, most likely, chances are, it is reasonable
to suppose, we can expect, and it seems probable that".
• However, not all inductive arguments contain indicator words.
- 4. © McGraw Hill
4
A Watchdog
Vicky Kasala/Photodisc/Getty Images
Most Corgis make good watchdogs. My dog Mindy is a
Corgi. Therefore, Mindy is probably a good watchdog.
- 5. © McGraw Hill
5
Three Types of Inductive Arguments
There are three common types of inductive arguments.
• Generalizations
• Analogies
• Causal arguments
- 6. © McGraw Hill
6
Generalizations
We use generalization when we draw a conclusion about
a certain characteristic of a group or population based on a
sample from that group.
Certain data collection processes employ inductive
generalization.
• These include polls, surveys, and sampling techniques.
• Types of sampling techniques include:
• Representative samples
• Random samples
• Self-selected samples.
- 7. 7
© McGraw Hill
Hot or Not?
Have you ever made a generalization in
your life that you later found to be false?
- 8. © McGraw Hill
8
Problems with Generalizations
Although data collected using inductive generalization
techniques may be useful and credible, it is also
susceptible to problems.
These problems include:
• Bias in wording, such as slanted questions, push polls, and
loaded questions.
- 9. © McGraw Hill
9
A Poll
Wdstock/E+/Getty Images
Your participation in a poll helps to provide an accurate
portrayal of a specific group or a population at large.
- 10. © McGraw Hill
10
Nick Fradiani Wining American Idol,
2015
Gabe Ginsberg/Getty Images
Internet polls and some polls sponsored by television
programs or stations, such as American Idol or CNN, may be
biased or unrepresentative, since they rely on call-ins from
their viewers or subscribers.
- 12. © McGraw Hill
12
Comparative Table of Heights of U.S.
Presidential Candidates
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.
Access the text alternative for slide images
- 14. © McGraw Hill
14
Evaluating Inductive Arguments Using
Generalization
When evaluating generalization-based arguments, the
following five criteria are useful:
• Check whether the premises are true.
• Decide if the sample is large enough.
• Decide if the sample is representative.
• Decide if the sample is current and up-to-date.
• Determine whether the premises support the conclusion.
- 15. © McGraw Hill
15
Issue of Contention: Are We against (or
for) It for the Right Reasons?
Patrick Baz/AFP/Getty Images
Women serving combat duty in the United States Military has been an
issue of contention—but are we against (or for) it for the right reasons?
- 16. © McGraw Hill
16
Analogies
An analogy is based on a comparison between two or
more things or events.
• Metaphors, a type of descriptive analogy, are common in literature.
• Analogies can be used on their own or as premises in arguments.
• Arguments using analogies are common in personal relationships,
as well as in many fields, such as law, religion, politics, business,
science, and the military.
The success of an argument using an analogy depends on
the type and extent of relevant similarities and
dissimilarities between the things being compared.
- 17. © McGraw Hill
17
A Painting of God Seeing the World
Akg-images/Newscom
The argument from design states that God must exist
because the world displays purposefulness.
- 18. © McGraw Hill
18
A Native American
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division (LC-
USZC4-3616).
An alliance of tribes,
Tecumseh argued, is
like braided hair.
A single strand of hair is
easy to break.
But several strands
braided together are
almost impossible to
break.
- 19. © McGraw Hill
19
Evaluating Arguments Based on
Analogy
Knowing how to evaluate arguments using analogy is a
valuable critical thinking skill.
The following strategies are useful:
• Identify what is being compared.
• List the similarities.
• List the dissimilarities.
• Compare the lists.
• Examine possible counteranalogies.
• Determine if the analogy supports the conclusion.
- 20. © McGraw Hill
20
In Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, Alice
argues with the March Hare and the
Dormouse
Duncan1890/DigitalVision Vectors/Getty Images
“I do [say what I mean],” Alice hastily
replied; “at least—at least I mean what I
say—that’s the same thing, you know.”
“Not the same thing a bit!” said the Hatter.
“Why, you might just as well say that ‘I see
what I eat’ is the same thing as ‘I eat what I
see’!”
“You might just as well say,” added the
March Hare, “That ‘I like what I get’ is the
same thing as ‘I get what I like’!”
“You might just as well say,” added the
Dormouse, which seemed to be talking in
its sleep, “That ‘I breathe when I sleep’ is
the same thing as ‘I sleep when I breathe’!”
- 21. © McGraw Hill
21
"Your Brain on Drugs"
Cookware: Judith Collins/Alamy Stock Photo; Fried eggs: Stockbyte/Getty Images
- 22. © McGraw Hill
22
A Scene from I, Robot
Blutgruppe/Corbis/Getty Images
The claim that begin with A I are not conscious and lack
feeling because they are not organic is based on an
irrelevant dissimilarity.
- 23. © McGraw Hill
23
Causal Arguments
A cause is an event that brings about a change or effect.
• In causal arguments, something is claimed as the cause of
something else. Understanding cause and effect relations is a
crucial component of effective critical thinking.
- 26. © McGraw Hill
26
Correlations
When two events occur together at rates higher than
probability, the relationship is called a correlation.
• If the incidence of one event increases when the second one
increases, the relationship is called a positive correlation.
• A negative correlation occurs when the occurrence of one event
increases as the other decreases.
- 27. © McGraw Hill
27
The Correlation between Cigarettes
Smoked and Lung Cancer
Alexandru Nika/Getty Images
Access the text alternative for slide images
- 28. © McGraw Hill
28
Evaluating Causal Arguments
Knowing how to evaluate causal arguments makes it
easier for you to employ them productively.
Use the following four criteria:
• Determine whether the evidence for a causal relationship is strong.
• Make sure the argument is free of fallacies.
• Decide whether the data is current and up-to-date.
• Make sure the conclusion does not go beyond the premises.
- 30. © McGraw Hill
30
Conclusions
• Knowledge of inductive arguments, including
generalizations, analogies, and causal arguments, is
essential for us to effectively function in the world.
• As good critical thinkers, we must constantly identify and
evaluate these types of arguments, both our own and
those presented to us by others.
