Say Grace

1. Component Professional
Education
Area Principles and Theories
of
Learning and Motivation

2. Basic Concepts
Theory
* tested and testable concepts which is used to explain an
occurrence (sciences and maths)
* refers to the non-practical aspect of the work (students of
the arts)
* refers to unproven ideas and speculations (laypeople)
* in the general sense means an analytic structure
designed to explain set of observations

3. Learning
- change in behavior (behaviorist)
- an internal mental process (cognitivist)
- a personal act to fulfil a potential (humanist)
- interaction/observation in social context (social
and situational theorist)
Theories of Learning
- explanations/assumptions/hypothesis about
how one learns or does not learn

4. Extensive Description of Learning:
Learning as a product and as a process
> During the 60’s and 70’s, learning is defined as a change in
behavior. In other words, learning is approached as an
outcome – the end product of some process;
> Learning also appears as a process – there is a concern
with what happens when learning takes place. In this way,
learning could be thought of as a process by which behavior
changes as a result of experience.

5. Successful and effective learning occurs when:
Learning is Goal Oriented. Students learn successfully when they
want to or need to, that is, when there is a meaningful purpose.
Learning is Situated in Social and Cultural Practice.Learners are
social being and can’t exist meaningfully without a group or the
community to which they belong.
Learning is Connected, Cumulative, and Constructive. Students build
on what they know and construct their knowledge.
Learning is Self-regulated Action and Reflection. Learners need to
have hands-on activities in the process of learning and reflect on and
make sense of their action.

6. Learning is individualized. Same lesson is provided but
different intake mode, therefore, varied strategies are
essential.
Learning is Inclusive. Inclusive education means that all
students in a school, regardless of their differences, are
part of the school community and can feel that they
belong.
Learning is Supported. Effective learning occurs when
students feel valued and challenged in a supportive
environment.

7. PNU: THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR TEACHER EDUCATION
Nurturing Innovative Teachers
Modes of Learning
Transmission (or direct teaching)
In this mode, knowledge, information, wisdom, and skills are taught
to learners in a goal-oriented, deliberate instruction, presentation,
demonstration or direct guidance. During a lifetime, this method
accounts for 10% of a person’s learning.
Acquisition (the conscious choice to learn)
This method includes exploring new knowledge and skills, self-
instruction, inquiry, and general curiosity. Learner is highly
motivated due to relevant content related to personal interest.
Currently, this accounts for about 20% of what we learn in a
lifetime.

8. Accretion (subconscious learning)
This mode of learning is the gradual process of learning
things such as language, culture, habits, prejudices, social
rules and behaviors. We are usually unaware that the
learning process is taking place, but about 70% of what we
know occurs below the level of our awareness.
Emergence (reflection and construction)
This mode of learning is the result of constructing new
ideas and meanings which emerge from the brain through
thoughtful reflection, creative expression or group
interactions.

9. THEORIES OF LEARNING
BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE
This is based on observable changes in
behavior. It focuses on a new behavioral
pattern being repeated until it becomes
automatic.

10. The Beviorist Perspective Theories
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
Classical conditioning is STIMULUS (S) – RESPONSE (R) conditioning
since the antecedent stimulus causes (elicits) the reflexive or
involuntary response to occur. It starts with a reflex: an innate,
involuntary behaviour elicited or caused by an antecedent
environmental event.
Example: If air is blown into your eye, you blink. You have no voluntary
or conscious control over whether the blink occurs or not.
The specific model for classical conditioning:
Unconditioned Stimulus (US),
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
The NS is repeatedly paired with the US
The NS is transformed into a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) that causes a
Conditioned Response (CR)

12. Features of Classical
Conditioning
1. Stimulus-generalization –
responding the same way to a
similar stimuli
2. Discrimination – responding
differently to similar but not
identical stimuli
3. Extinction – losing the
conditioned response.

13. Thorndike’s Laws of Learning
Law of readiness: Interference with goal directed
behavior causes frustration and causing someone
to do something they do not want to do is also
frustrating.
When someone is ready to perform some
act, to do so is satisfying.
When someone is ready to perform some
act, not to do so is annoying.
When someone is not ready to perform
some act and is forced to do so, it is
annoying.

14. Operant Conditioning ( BF Skinner)
Operant conditioning is the use of pleasant
and unpleasant consequences to change
behavior. Operant behavior refers to the
behavior that can be modified by its
consequence.
The Role of Consequences:
Reinforcers (+ or -): a pleasurable
consequences that maintains or increases a
behaviour
Punishers (+ or -): a consequence that
weakens behaviour

16. There are four possible consequences to any
behavior. They are:
Something Good can start or be presented;
Something Good can end or be taken away;
Something Bad can start or be presented;
Something Bad can end or be taken away.
Consequences refer to
reinforcement and punishment.

17. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs
within a social context. It considers that people learn from
one another, including such concepts as observational
learning, imitation and modelling.
Bandura’s Observational Learning Phases:
Attention phase
Retention phase
Reproduction phase
Motivational phase

18. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE TTHEORIES
Cognitive learning theories relate to processes that occur within the
minds of learners. The cognitive view sees people as active learners
who initiate experiences, seek out information to solve problems
and re-organize what they already know to achieve new insights.
The Theories:
Information Processing
A model comparing the mind to the functions of a computer
Sensory Register > Short Term Memory > Long term Memory
Perception Rehearsal Retrieval
Channels Memory Devices

19. Cumulative Learning Theory (Robert Gagne)
This theory suggests that lessons must be
taught/presented starting from the simple
task and build on until one learns the complex
task. This is more of the strategy rather than a
theory.

20. Dual Coding Theory (Allan Paivio)
This theory attempts to give equal weight to verbal and non-verbal
processing. As a principle, recall/recognition is enhanced by
presenting information in both visual and verbal form.
Visual Need
Verbal Need
Pre-school Elementary Secondary Tertiary

21. Schema Theory
Schema is a mental category that contains knowledge about people, events
and concepts. Because schema affects what we attend to and how we
interpret things, schema can influence, bias, and distort our thoughts,
perceptions, and social behaviors.
Kinds:
Person schema – include our judgements about the traits that we and
other possess.
Role schema – based on the jobs that people perform or the social
positions they hold
Event schema- contains behaviors that we associate with familiar
activities, events or procedures
Self schema – contain personal information about ourselves, and this
information influences, modifies, and distorts what we perceive and
remember and how we behave

22. PNU: THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR TEACHER EDUCATION
Nurturing Innovative Teachers
Insight Learning Theory
(Wolfgang Kohler)
Insight is a mental process marked by the
sudden and expected solution to a
problem: a phenomena often called the
“ah-ha” experience.

23. Discovery Learning (Jerome Bruner)
Discovery learning is known as active learning
because the learners participate in the learning
process rather than passively receiving knowledge.
The chief advantage of discovery learning is that
questioning and solving problems without expecting
someone to give one the answer enables the learner
to develop confidence in one’s ability to handle
problems which in turn encourages the person to go
further.

24. CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE THEORIES
Constructivism suggests that the learner is much more actively involved in
a joint enterprise with the teacher of creating (constructing) new
meanings
Cognitive Constructivism (Jean Piaget)
This about how the individual learner understands things in terms of
developmental stages and learning styles. The stages of cognitive
development as advanced by Piaget is in every stage characterized by
assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation is the process by which a child uses old methods or
experiences to deal with new situations.
Accommodation is the process by which a child changes old methods to
deal with or adjust to new situation.

25. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage 1 Sensorimotor Stage (birth – 2 years)
Problem encountered in the early stage: OBJECT
PERMANENCE
Stage 2 Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
Egocentric thinking
Conservation
Stage 3 Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
Mastered conservation, classification
Stage 4 Formal Operational Stage
Develop the ability to think about and solve abstract
problems in logical manner

26. Social Constructivism (Lev Vygotsky)
This emphasizes how meanings and understanding grow
out of social encounters.
Important concepts:
ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development) is the gap between
what the learner “can do alone” and “cannot yet do”.
Thus, ZPD is what the learner “can do with help”.
MKO (More Knowledgeable Other) is the one that
provides the learner with scaffolding.
Scaffolding is temporary support to learning.

27. Other Important Learning Concepts:
METACOGNITION
It is a higher order thinking skill that requires active control over
the cognitive processes involved in learning.
It is being mindful of your own thinking process and at the same
time awareness of the factors that affects it.
Three Basic Components of Metacognition (Three types of
Knowledge)
Declarative Knowledge (knowing what to do)
Procedural knowledge (Knowing how to perform a task)
Conditional Knowledge (Knowing when and why to do a task)

28. STUDENT DIVERSITY
Diversity means differences in many aspects.
A learning environment is characterized by
diversity in the following:
1.Socioeconomic Status
2.Thinking/learning Styles
3.Exceptionalities

29. TRANSFER OF LEARNING
It happens when learning in one context or with one set
of materials affects performance in another context or
with other related materials. Simply put, it is applying to
another situation what was previously learned.
Types of Transfer:
Positive Transfer. This occurs when learning in one
context improves performance in some other context.
Negative Transfer. This occurs when learning in one
context impacts negatively on performance in another.

30. Lateral or horizontal Transfer.
Knowledge in the previously learned
material is helpful is but not necessary in
learning a new material.
Vertical Transfer. Knowledge of the
previously learned material is necessary
in order to learn the new material.

31. THEORIES OFMOTIVATION

34. Expectancy Theory by V. Vroom

35. Choice Theory by Glasser

37. Endowed Progress Effect

38. Reactance Theory

39. Review Questions:
1. Which refers to learning?
a. ability to stand up
b. feeling hungry after a hard work
c. increasing in weight
d. ability to write one’s name
2. Which is NOT an indicator of learning?
a. greater speed b. greater precision and accuracy
c. physical strength d. more logical reasoning

40. Gail wants to train her dog to come inside when she blows a
dog whistle. To do this, she blows the whistle just as her dog begins
eating. She does this every day for a week. The next time the dog is
outside, she blows the whistle, and the dog comes right to her.
3. What is the conditioned stimulus?
a. whistle b. food
c. eating d. approaches the whistle; comes
inside
4. What is the conditioned response?
a. whistle b. food
c. eating d. approaches the whistle; comes
inside

41. 5. Which of the following is an operant behavior?
a. writing an essay b. getting high grades
c. receiving a medal d. being scolded
6. A green mango which automatically or reflexively causes a
person to salivate shows a/an
a. conditioned stimulus b. unconditioned stimulus
c. unconditioned response d. conditioned response
7. A baby who has learned how to say PLEASE in order to get
what she wants from her parents shows a behaviour considered
as a/an
a. conditioned stimulus b. unconditioned stimulus
c. unconditioned response d. conditioned response

42. 8. In observation and imitation learning, what should be
the learner’s response when the teacher initially models
the behaviour?
a. reproduce and match b. pay attention
c. imitate and practice d. show satisfaction
9. Which of the following instructional events support
learning at retrieval phase?
a. gaining attention
b. b. informing learners of the objectives
c. recalling prior knowledge
d. presenting the stimulus materials

43. 10. In reinforcement, which of the following praise statement enable the
students to understand the specific action that is being praised?
a. “You were very responsible!”
b. “Thank you for returning the books in their proper shelves.”
c. “Aren’t you good today?”
d. “You got high in the test. How lucky can you be?”
11. The main reason there is a greater need for the teacher to use audio-
visual materials in the elementary than in the secondary is that in the former
a. teacher must present materials in an attractive and meaningful
manner
b. children have short attention span and this may be increased through
aids
c. children associate instructional aids with instructional toys
d. children need to concretize their ideas first before they can operate
on the level of abstract reasoning

44. 12. Miss Soriano, a physical education teacher begins a complicated
dance step by simple swaying of arms and body in slow motion
guiding her students through the intended movements. What
principle is applied by the teacher?
a. provide sufficient support
b. present only tasks that students can perform successfully
c. provide opportunities for students to test their learning effort
d. model effective learning and study strategies
13. A seven year old child begins to understand that the amount of
flat masked clay when rolled like a ball remains the same regardless
of shape or the way it looks. This situation shows that he is able to
understand the mental concept called
a. equilibration b. conservation
c. accommodation d. assimilation

45. 14. Joey, a five-month-old boy, could not understand that
objects continue to exist even if they can no longer be
seen. What has he not mastered at this stage?
a. conservation b. cognition
c. insight d. object permanence
15. Michael has difficulty getting the right answer to a
problem in algebra. Suddenly, he “saw” how to solve a
problem. Which of the following illustrates the situation?
a. revelation b. insight
c. memory d. retention

46. 16. Vygotsky claimed that social interaction is important for learning.
What does this imply?
a. Children are independent problem solvers.
b. Children learn from adults and other children.
c. Since they are not capable of interaction, children in the crib
have no learning yet.
d. Children learn well by passive presentation of information.
17. To prove the truth of the concept that air has weight, Mr.
Teodoro grouped his students into four. He gave each group a set of
materials with which to perform some activity and verify the
correctness or wrongness of the concept. This is an illustration of
a. discovery learning b. reception learning
c. passive learning d. social learning

47. 18. When we attend gatherings or parties, we make sure
what those are for so we can prepare what to wear and
what to do. This is because we have
a. person schema b. role schema
c. event schema d. self schema
19. What should teachers do to be assured that there will
be transfer of learning?
a. allow manipulation of the materials
b. provide more activities for application
c. give plenty of seat works
d. give lengthy homeworks

48. 20. Before one can understand topics 5 and 6, he/she must
have read the topic before that. This illustrates
a. specific transfer b. general transfer
c. vertical transfer d. lateral transfer
21. Leon was taught by his father how to play the guitar. In
school, his music teacher taught them how to play the
ukulele. He had difficulty adjusting to the chords from a six-
string instrument to a four-string one. He felt he learned
very slowly. This illustrates
a. lateral transfer b. vertical transfer
c. general transfer d. negative transfer

49. 22. Leah was exposed to a typewriter when she was young so at
eight she knew how to type. When she enrolled in a computer class,
she learned how to use the keyboard fast. This illustrates
a. positive transfer b. vertical transfer
c. lateral transfer d. negative transfer
23. While Teacher Amir was introducing a lesson, a student asked
him: Sir, how can the lesson help us earn additional income. This
situation exemplifies___
a. Learning is goal oriented.
b. Learning is inclusive.
c. Learning is self-regulated action and reflection.
d. Learning is individualized.

50. 24. Anita Utangbaka loves to read about Paris. She knows all the
tourist attractions of the city. What kind of learning has she
experienced?
a. direct learning b. congenital learning
c. indirect learning d. motor learning
25. A blind person can learn how to read with the use of a
specialized learning material like the Braille that will make use of
the learner’s fingers. What kind of learning is this?
a. sensory learning b. congenital learning
temporary learning d. insight learning