Concept Paper: Importance of Studying “Economics of Child Care” in the context of Australian experience - Authored by Dr Nisa Medagama

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Importance of Studying “Economics of Child Care” in the
context of Australian experience
Authors:
Dr Nisa Medagama (Economics Researcher, Lecturer, Statistician and Training Consultant)
http://www.linkedin.com/in/nisansalam
Qualifications: PhD-Economics, MA-Economics, Bachelor of Commerce (Hon), SAT (AAT), SAP HANA
Certified, Certificate IV in Training & Assessment - Australia, Certificate III in Early childhood Education –
Australia
Contact authors or to see more articles:
Visit http://www.divipit.com.au/ to contact us and see more articles we have written on the topic.
Document Version Control:
V1.0 – Released on 30.03.2015
Abstract
Child care industry is important to an economy mainly because of its positive impact
on labour force participation of women, community infrastructure growth, early child
hood growth and development through proper education. In Australia there is a high
demand for quality early childhood care services compared to its supply. Having a vast
multicultural population, the impact from the child care industry on the socio-economic
setting of the country is of significance. This concept paper is an attempt to introduce a
proper framework for evaluating the impact from the child care industry on different
segments of the economy.

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1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Why Child Care industry is important to the economy? ........................................... 3
1.2 Why child care is an economic problem?................................................................ 3
1.3 What motivates us to develop CCE as a separate branch of study? ....................... 4
1.4 Why is it important to include CCE in University Curriculums?................................ 4
2 The Model/ framework for CCE...................................................................................... 6
2.1 Components of the model for CCE ......................................................................... 6
2.1.1 Child Care Demand ......................................................................................... 7
2.1.2 Child Care Supply............................................................................................ 7
2.1.3 Market Equilibrium ........................................................................................... 8
2.1.4 Influential Factors ............................................................................................ 9
2.1.5 Micro Economic Evaluation.............................................................................. 9
2.1.6 Macro-Economic Evaluation .......................................................................... 10
2.1.7 Planning, Budgeting and Monitoring .............................................................. 11
2.2 Actors of the Economics of Child Care.................................................................. 13
2.2.1 Families ......................................................................................................... 13
2.2.2 Government................................................................................................... 13
2.2.3 Child Care Service Providers......................................................................... 13

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1 Introduction
1.1 Why Child Care industry is important to the economy?
Child care is a rapidly growing industry with a considerable input to economies of many
countries. The most distinctive and concerned aspects relating to child care industry involves
cost, quality and mode of care. Due to the substantial amounts of child care costs to working
parents of young children in need of care, the government intervention is apparent in this
market to eliminate market imperfections and/or for income redistribution purposes.
The Demand for child care services in the economy mainly depends on cost and availability
of care as well as on women's participation in the work force. The supply of child care is
directly affected by government policies, regulations as well as by child care related
education options and population growth in the economy. The market price of child care
services vary between different geographic locations such as regions, states, suburbs etc.
and may depend on availability of care, average parental income and mode of care. Child
care industry is important to an economy mainly because of its positive impact on labour
force participation rate of women, on community infrastructure growth and on early child
hood growth, development and education.
1.2 Why child care is an economic problem?
There are many reasons to consider child care from an economic perspective. One of the
main reasons is the cost of child care consuming a significant portion of house hold income
of families with young children. Hence, the financial pressure in addition to emotional
pressure of separation from young kids, lead to further reduction of women’s participation in
the workforce. Many governments have intervened to upturn the affordability of child care by
way of child care rebates, tax benefits and various income support schemes resulting in
higher public expenditure. Hence, provision of cost effective affordable child care to meet the
demand has become an economic problem worldwide.
Further, unequal access to childcare can intensify a range of income, gender, and social
disparities. The most important issue child care industry face today is “how best to care for
the children”. The quality, cost and availability of care would be the deciding factors in
seeking a care facility for young children by working parents. Lack of quality can negatively
affect a child’s growth and development whereas high cost and unavailability can negatively
impact the work force participation of women. In other words child care industry can impact
the economy of a country negatively at present as well as in the future if due measures are
not taken by the relevant authorities. For example, there are an estimated 3.6 million
children under the age of 12 currently in need of some form of care in Australia including
before and/or after school care, long day care, family day care, occasional care and informal
care (AWCCI, 2013). Further, the demand for child care is expected to grow as fertility rates
rise and net immigration continues to hike in the country. Therefore, the overall effort by the
economy would be to function in a manner to provide high quality, affordable and accessible
child care to all families in need of care.

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In addition, development of the child care industry contribute to the creation of direct and
indirect job opportunities such as child care educators, support staff, trainers and other
related work. In terms of employment child care industry provide opportunities for youths to
enter into the labour market with a responsible and rewarding career in the early childhood
education and care. Child care industry also has a capability to create small businesses in
the economy by creating opportunities to open family day care businesses leading to
financial independence of women who decide to stay at home looking after children while
earning an income.
Irrespective of different family and cultural circumstances it is a known fact that high quality,
safe and professional childcare services can positively influence the growth and
development of young generations to come. It also contributes to the ease of mind of
parents regarding the safety and wellbeing of their children, resulting in an efficient
workforce with higher motivation.
1.3 What motivates us to develop CCE as a separate branch of study?
Child care industry is an important segment in the economy. Provision of child care services
influence labour supply and the demand for labour in a positive manner. Labour supply
increases due to women’s participation in workforce when child care services are available
at affordable prices. Further this industry has a huge potential to add new employment
opportunities to the economy in the area of early childhood education and care, positively
influencing the demand for labour.
Despite the massive importance of child care industry to an economy, it is apparent that only
a few numbers of studies and research work has been carried out to understand the real
importance and impact of it worldwide. Due to lack of further study and research, the
formulation of best policies to further develop the industry in order to bring full potential
benefits to the economy are hindered.
According to our observations the lack of research work done relating to Child Care
Economics (CCE) is mainly due to the non-existence of a valid framework of study. Without
a proper framework, economic research studies in this area have been conducted in a
haphazard and country specific manner. The absence of a basic model that illustrate the
fundamental aspects, market forces and other economic traits relevant to child care industry
and the relationships between these elements has to be overcome by forming a structural
model that can facilitate current and future research studies.
To remove study limitations and develop CCE as a robust economic branch of study we are
introducing a structural model. Our primary objective is to facilitate smooth undergraduate
and postgraduate study and also promote new research in the area of Child Care Economics
(CCE). We expect that this model would provide inspiration to conduct new research
studies as a result of structural assistance given in analysing the economic impact
from child care industry. Hence, we welcome new views or ideas, agreements or
disagreements, further suggestions, new schools of thoughts regarding the model in the
attempt of developing CCE as a new branch of economics.
1.4 Why is it important to include CCE in University Curriculums?
Globally many Technical and Further Education (TAFE) Colleges, Registered Training
Organizations (RTO’s) and universities offer certificates, diplomas, advance diploma and
degree level qualifications in early year’s education and care in collaboration with the
vocational training sector. All these qualifications are more focused towards developing a

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carrier pathway for students who wish to find employment opportunities in child care
industry. However, irrespective of the increase in demand and supply of child care services
and its importance to the economy worldwide, CCE is not studied at universities as a
separate economics subject. Therefore it is really important to consider the inclusion of ‘child
care economics’ (CCE) as a subject in university curriculums. Initially it can be introduced as
an optional subject area in social science and economic course streams in universities.
Child Care Economics (CCE) considers how different ways of resource usage (allocation)
can have different effects on child care market and on the economy at large. Further CCE
involves examining of resource distribution and allocations to Child care industry in different
regions of the world during different time periods. It also examines the consequences and
impacts of limitations in resource allocation on child care costs as well as effects to intended
and unintended interested parties.
The knowledge and skills gained through studying CCE, can be applied in analysing the
relationships between the suppliers (Child care centres) and consumers (families). CCE can
cover a detailed investigation regarding the effects of different types of child care options
varying from family day care to long day care, occasional care and outside school hour’s
care. Further, the influences coming from actions by government, professional groups,
insurance providers, communities, work health and safety regulators, Industry quality control
agencies on child care providers and consumers can also be properly examined under a
separate branch of study.

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2 The Model/ framework for CCE
By introducing a ‘Model’ of study we hope to provide a proper framework of study for anyone
interested in child care economics. The model is motivated by following factors;
 Importance of a unique framework of study for future research students in the area of
child care economics.
 Clarification of structure, relationships and economic aspects relating to the child
care industry’s sustainability in the economy.
 Development of new knowledge/ideas in the area of CCE
2.1 Components of the model for CCE
Demand for Child Care
- Barriers to access
- Relationships
- Need
Supply of Child Care
- Cost of care
- Incentives
- Legal requirements
- labour turnover
Market Equilibrium
Micro
Economic
Evaluation
Macro
Economic
Evaluation
Planning
Budgeting &
Monitoring
Influential
Factors
- Cost effectiveness
- Alternative care
- Amount of care
- Inter regional
comparisons of
performance
- International
comparisons of
performance
- LFPR of mothers
- Cost of formal care
- Family income level
- Early years education
- Socialization & Behaviour
guidance
- EYLF & NQF standards
- CCB & CCR schemes
- Tax allowances
- OHS requirements

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2.1.1 Child Care Demand
The demand for child care is a derived demand from the demand for work by parents,
specifically mothers. However, centre based long-day care is also demanded as an option
for basic early year’s education for young children by some parents. Demand for child care is
different from the demand for most other goods as parents spend and purchase child care in
order to obtain a quality service not for themselves but for their young children.
Demand for child care basically depends on the mother’s decision to join the work force.
Especially if both parents are working and informal care options are unavailable, as with the
situation of recent migrants, parents have to select among different types of paid care
suitable for their needs. The level of income earned and the hours of work by the mother can
also influence the preferred type of care varying from family day care, long centre based
care, occasional care, in-home care etc. The demand for care is also affected by the type of
relationship between parent, child and carer. Better and strong relationships between the
three parties affect demand for care positively and vice-versa. At present with an increasing
number of children accessing child care services, parents have concerns regarding service
quality in child care. Demand is high for quality child care centres resulting in long waiting
periods for families to enrol their young children for a spot.
Better strategies are necessary to identify future areas of demand and establish good
connections between local councils, state governments and child care service providers in
order to assist parents in accessing and evaluating services efficiently. Further, income level
of mother and family also have an impact on the demand for paid child care since child care
costs account for a larger portion of their total spending. Hence, effect from price of care on
the demand for care may be different among low income earning families and high income
earning families in the economy.
2.1.2 Child Care Supply
At present, child care industry is overwhelmed by an increasing demand compared to supply
worldwide. Working parents are finding it increasingly difficult to secure adequate child care
places for their children, resulting in long waiting times to enrol kids for day care centres.
There is an excess demand for child care mainly due to reasons such as increased
participation of women in the workforce, general idea that long day care provide children with
better early year’s education and socialising skills, availability of government funding and
accessibility of care. However, the availability and accessibility of long day care for babies
and toddlers is not sufficient and as a result parents sometimes have to wait for years to
receive a place at a centre in close proximity. Generally the child care rates are also high for
younger age groups.
The supply of child care normally lags behind increasing demand, which makes it difficult for
working parents to acquire proper child care for their young ones. This forces many working
women to either resign from current job roles in order to take on child caring roles, rely on
grandparents or hire expensive private carers. It has been observed that the high cost
associated with providing care and low profit margins also contribute to the insufficient
supply of care. Further, strict government regulations relating to quality of care measures
based on staff child ratios and qualifications of educators result in incurring more costs to
centres. Generally, the average salaries paid to educators is low compared to salaries paid
in other professions which results in high labour turnover and dissatisfaction among workers
and also contributes to the low quality of the service and sometimes closure.

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Low level of incentives allocated to child care industry by the government is another reason
for insufficient supply of care. Hence, government impose new policies and regulations from
time to time in order to make the child care industry more attractive to families and more
profitable to providers.
2.1.3 Market Equilibrium
Child care market is basically a privately paid market. The price of paid child care can vary
depending on the type of service (whether family day care, centre based long-day-care,
occasional care, etc.), geographical region of the service (urban or rural locality) and on type
of facilities provided. High priced care generally has a negative impact on the use of paid
care by working mothers. The price of child care may influence choices such as the mother's
decision to work; the decision whether to purchase paid child care or to use unpaid informal
care; and, if paid care is chosen, the type of care. However, the value of informal and unpaid
childcare is almost impossible to calculate as it operates in a core economy where time is
given as a gift or as part of a mutual exchange. Unpaid child care is provided based on
informal human and social assets such as love, empathy, energy and past experiences.
Similarly, small changes in price of child care may induce large supply responses. Subsidies
lower the cost of child care to parents and are therefore likely to increase the demand for
care. However, according to evidence, supply of care will also rise to meet an increase in
demand for care without much of a change in the current price. As a result, in the absence of
other changes, the benefits of a subsidy accrue to the consumer. However, the benefit of the
subsidy policy would accrue entirely to the providers if the amount of child care available
were fixed. Due to a government subsidy, the increase in demand would drive up prices. The
price would rise by the amount of the subsidy, so that parents would end up paying the same
amount as they had been before the introduction of the subsidy, and the providers of care
would receive an increase in fees equal to the amount of the subsidy. However, under
normal circumstances the amount of supply of child care responds positively to an increase
in demand and as a result the benefits of the subsidy ensue to the consumer.
The cost of child care is becoming unaffordable for working parents resulting in more women
staying at home to look after their young children. Price of child care may also increase due
to increases in prices of essential goods such as milk, food, vegetables, fruits, grocery,
stationary, cleaning and hygienic products, tissues, rent and insurance premium payments
etc. in addition to salaries. Such increases in upkeep cost generally results in increased
costs to the care provider, from which significant part has to be borne by the parents due to
the resulting increase in child care fees.
Another factor that influences market equilibrium through demand for care is the
time/amount of care requirements. When there are more young families with young
preschool children, there would be more demand for long day care. When there are more
school aged children, the demand for outside school hours care would increase in that
particular area. Supply would respond accordingly in order to maintain the market
equilibrium price and quantity.

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2.1.4 Influential Factors
One of the major factors contributing to child care demand may be the labour force
participation of young mothers. Due to insufficient income and high cost of living, women
with young children have to take the decision of whether or not to work. However due to high
costs associated with formal child care this is only practical in situations where there are only
one or two young children in a family. Otherwise, the income from work would be insufficient
and unattractive after paying for child care fees of three or more children. Hence, when the
number of children seeking care is more so would be the cost borne by parents. Family
income level has to be high in order to finance increasing child care costs. In other terms the
opportunity cost of looking after children at home has to be higher for mothers to take the
decision of participating in the work force.
Formal child care is sought by families for certain other reasons as well. These reasons
include; unavailability of informal care, providing a proper early years education for young
children, have some personal time from time to time, socialisation of children and provision
of early behaviour guidance. However, the extent of influence from all possible factors in
addition to cost of child care has to be analysed separately in order to decide the most
significant factor out of all.
2.1.5 Micro Economic Evaluation
The government intervenes by way of child care benefit schemes (CCB) and child care
rebates (CCR) for parents who seek paid child care services for children. Hence, the public
expenditure component consists of child care benefit payments and rebates paid out of
government tax income. Private expenditure consists of the remaining expenditure portion
borne by families seeking child care.
Child care services are becoming more and more expensive for working parents, which is
one of the main reasons for the decline in women’s participation in the workforce. With the
high cost of child care, a growing number of women are finding that a bulk of their salaries
go directly to child care payments, which leaves only a little financial incentive for them to
work. For example, in Australia though the current Child Care Rebate (CCR) covers up to
$7500 of child care costs per year, it is increasingly becoming insufficient given that child
care fees are in excess of $100 per day per child for long day care. The median cost per
week had been $63 for long day care, $25 for before and after school care and $30 for
family day care (graph). With more than one child in need of care in a single family, it is not
necessary to mention that the rebate is far more insufficient. It was found out in year 2014,
that most Australian families (55%) now pay more than $300 per week for child care
(CareforKids.com.au)
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics- Early childhood census June 2011

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The average cost of care per hour/per day for different types of care providers is given in the
following table.
Source: CareforKids.com.au
Most young families with grandparents or relatives prefer to obtain informal child care. Being
informal and free most of the time, the value of informal care options is difficult to measure.
Informal care is mainly an ‘exchange’ of support, love and care among relatives in an
extended family environment. Though informal care is an alternative it is not available for
many families and as a result formal care options in the form of family day care, occasional
care, long day care and outside school hour’s care is sought after by many parents. For
instance, 78 percent families use centre based long child care, 16 percent use grandparent’s
help, 16 percent use before/after school care, 13 percent use family day care and 11 percent
obtain the service of nanny/in-home care at present (CareforKids.com.au). The selection of
type of care depends on the age group of child, time period/hours, accessibility of care
facility and cost of care. For example for young preschool aged kids long day care provided
at a centre or at a family day care would be relevant. Whereas, for school aged kids outside
school hour’s care and vacation care would be the appropriate type of care.
Accessible, affordable and flexible child care is crucial for women with young children in
making decisions relating to employment opportunities such as whether to remain in or
resign or return to the workforce, type of work (casual, part-time, fulltime) and hours of work.
Overall, these decisions influence the national output at the macro level.
2.1.6 Macro-Economic Evaluation
The impact that the child care industry has on the rest of the economy is an important area
where research is lacking at present. The economy in terms of economic output, creation of
jobs, provision of tax revenue and growth of businesses engaged in supplementary services
and products are areas that are positively affected by child care industry. Thus spending on
early childhood care industry creates demand for other suppliers and also for other
businesses where carers and their families shop. Overall, spending on child care industry
supports many jobs, both direct jobs in the child care industry and also jobs in connected
industries such as educational supplies (toys, story books, stationary and other), food, health
care and other businesses varying from furniture and fittings, sport, entertainment and
photography.

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In addition to promoting the workforce participation and productivity of parents, proper child
care supports the cognitive and social development of children, who would grow up to be
individuals more likely to make positive social and economic contributions. Parents need the
support of reliable, affordable quality child care in order to productively participate in the
workforce. Due to the child care industry’s positive impact on other industries in the
economy, it is important to stimulate and uphold the industry to withstand periods of
recession and high unemployment as well.
Child care sector has been traditionally underrepresented in economic analysis due to it
being considered from an informal, welfare or education frame and not as an economic
sector in its own right. Nevertheless at present increased interest is being paid to the child
care sector by economists and child care policymakers. Recent research studies worldwide
have reinterpreted child care as an important economic sector and attempt to develop better
data on demand, supply, costs and prices in the child care market.
2.1.7 Planning, Budgeting and Monitoring
.
For government intervention in the child care market, as well as for the choice of policy there
should be an economic rationale. If the low quality of care purchased is a result of lack of
information for parents or due to external benefits associated with child care, a possible
approach for the government is to regulate the quality of child care. Imposing or amending
regulations relating to child care industry mainly affects the supply side of care. However, the
regulations have to be enforceable and mandatory in order to actually increase the quality of
regulated care. On the other hand, compliance with regulations can be costly if they lead to
rise in prices or profit losses due to being mandatory requirements. (e.g. minimum child staff
ratios, technological improvements etc.). These types of profit losses can drive some care
providers out of the market and also result in price increases due to low supply of services in
a particular area.
Regulations and licensing provisions are determined at the state or local level and can vary
widely. There are regulations that have to be followed in providing care as well as in training
staff for the role of child care educator. In providing care for children, the services must
adhere to different requirements relating to educator to child ratios, safety and health issues
coming under WHS legislation, food preparation related regulations, document maintenance,
disability regulations, etc. As educators’ qualification level and experience is important in
measuring quality of care, another important area of regulation that can be used by the
government to improve quality is regulations that affect child care providers. In training
workers, the educational institutes should adhere to AQTF (Australian Quality Training
Framework) standards to maintain required quality of training in any industry. Other than
these, there may be organization specific regulations as well. There is a lack of information
relating to areas such as; how regulations relating to different aspects of care affect the
supply of regulated care; the effect of regulations on prices charged by child care providers
and how regulations affect parents' use of regulated care.

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High quality childcare is known to positively affect the physical and mental growth and
development of young children and hence especially beneficial for those children from
financially or socially unstable backgrounds or whose parents have little education. The
positive impact from proper child care is strongest in children’s early years and benefits
continue to be felt through school years and into adulthood. However, parents have trouble
evaluating the extent of quality of care their child is receiving due to several types of
information imperfections that may exist in the child care market. An accepted measure used
to maintain quality is the restrictions relating to staff-child ratio. This is a quality vs quantity
kind of measure. In other terms higher the number of children per carer, lower will be the
quality of care. However, in deciding the numbers, the age limit of children is given priority
and the ratio varies between different age groups. For example, as infants need more care,
there will be less number of infants for one carer compared to other higher age groups.
A free market system may not provide information to parents on the advantages and
attributes of quality child care. It may also be difficult for parents to find out child care
services/providers in their area and the attributes of various choices to determine quality.
Parents report that they value good quality child care, but the chances are that they
extensively overestimate the quality of care their child is receiving. Further, providers may be
unable to obtain current information necessary to ensure quality of care they offer. Relating
to monitoring if information is the issue, then government provision of information would be
appropriate. One role for government is to provide information or encourage private
agencies to provide information that educates parents and providers about the aspects of
care that are important for child health and safety and for development. However, the
attributes involved with quality of care, such as; the level of education and experience of
carers, staff-child ratios, group size have little effect on service fees. The reason may be that
parents are not willing to pay for these attributes of quality care even though they say that
they care about quality. On the other hand, the quality of unpaid informal care is driven by
different inspirations, such as the obligations of kinship and mutuality, love and kindness and
pleasure of looking after the young.
Professional training opportunities for child care educators and higher wages can positively
and directly impact the quality of care. Higher wages and professional development (PD)
opportunities for care workers may significantly reduce the high labour turnover and resulting
fall in quality of care. For example in Australia, training is normally provided via TAFE
colleges or RTO’s that cater for vocational education sector. In order to attract prospective
students, there are different levels of qualifications offered at these education institutes such
as basic certificate level, diploma level, advance diploma or degree level qualifications
relating to each and every industry. With the increase in number of students undertaking
training, the minimum level of qualification is uplifting and this can result in improving the
service quality of child care industry in the future. Lack of proper education opportunities for
carers is a problem as this can directly impact the quality of care, sustainability of centres in
the future, high labour turnover, increased settling time by new young children due to
inexperienced carers, etc.
Technology is used specifically for hiring educators, delivering online education,
administration activities at centres, financial transactions between parents and carers and for
early year’s education activities with children at care facilities. For continuous professional
development, certain courses are made mandatory for workers at centre based care. Hence,
use of technology is becoming important in upgrading professionalism of child care workers
in addition to administration purposes. The time limitation for further education due to high
work load can be avoided by engaging in distance learning options. Hence, adherence to
technological advancements is becoming essential in child care industry at present.

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2.2 Actors of the Economics of Child Care
There are basically three parties involved in the child care industry of an economy. They are
families with young children, Child care service providers and the government. These actors
operate in the child care market with different objectives.
2.2.1 Families
The objective of families in the child care market is to obtain the highest quality of child care
at an affordable price. The aggregate demand for childcare is formed by adding up the
demand of all the families in the economy at a point of time. The demand for child care has
an ‘indirect demand’. In other words, the demand for child care arises from the demand for
work by women with young children, demand for early years education, demand for personal
leisure time, etc.
Carrier mindedness, financial difficulties as well as educational qualifications and past
experience can motivate women to seek employment opportunities that results in a
continuous demand for child care. At present the traditional support system of grandparents
is eroding due to many reasons including; frequent travelling by young families between
states and countries, valuing of personal independence including grandparents,
advancements in communication technologies that eliminate the need to live close by or visit
relatives frequently and the preference for nuclear families over traditional extended family
system.
2.2.2 Government
The government intervention is necessary to overcome externalities in the child care market.
The objectives of government involvement may be the redistribution of income in the
economy or provision of information to families and carers and to enforce policies and
regulations to endure a quality child care industry in the economy.
The government intervention can be seen in providing financial support via child Care
Benefit (CCB) and Child Care Rebate (CCR) schemes to eligible families. Also if information
is lacking in the community regarding available child care options etc. the state government
authorities get involved in distributing information by way of online registers, information
booklets etc. The government also get involved in the enforcement of policies and
regulations relating to training, assessment of adherence to guidelines in early years
learning framework and quality assurance of care provided by services.
2.2.3 Child Care Service Providers
The main objective is maximising profits like any other service provider in an economy.
However due to nature of industry and close contact with young children; quality, health and
safety concerns matter significantly for long term survival. National Quality Standards (NQS)
has to be followed in order to provide a quality service and for sustainability.

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Child care providers, cannot influence the price of care nevertheless will react to changes in
demand occurring due to government subsidies offered by way of benefits and/or rebate
schemes for families (buyers). There is an indirect positive impact on the rest of the
economy due to purchasing of essential services and goods from other connected
businesses in the economy for continuous maintenance of a child care service.
References:
Australian Women Chamber of Commerce & Industry (AWCCI), 2013, “Child Care
Issues Paper”, P.g. 4 – 6.

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