3. Chapter 1
Introduction
“Water Conservation” means the preservation, control and development of water
resources (surface and groundwater) whether by storage, including natural ground
storage, prevention of pollution or other means so as to ensure that adequate and reliable
for all purposes in the most suitable and economic way against whilst safeguarding
legitimate interests. Water Conservation Guidelines can be developed for Agriculture,
Commercial, Industrial, Municipal, Residential and Landscaping.
Water conservation measures include such things as metering, improved water
accounting, leak detection, water-use audits, retrofits, reuse and recycling, and landscape
improvements, reducing evaporation through mulching, delaying runoff, recirculating
cooling or other water, water to enable it to be re-used, reducing waste water to enable it
to be re-used, rainwater harvesting, changing crop varieties, changing farming methods
and irrigation type.
Surface Storage: Both impounding and storage reservoirs are filled as required when
river flow exceeds a minimum which must be allowed to continue downstream. There is
no discrimination on the type of runoff collected. Runoff has two components, direct run-
off (surface) and indirect runoff (springs).
Water for Cooling Purposes: The Minister may grant licenses to water users for cooling
purposes from groundwater provided the same is returned ton the aquifer after use.
Water Pollution: the law should govern the pollution of water. In practice, the law is
very difficult to operate. The power to make bylaws for the protection of the source from
pollution within defined area should be given, whether on the surface or groundwater.
The section should also make it an offence to be “guilty of any act or neglect whereby
any springs, well or audit the water from which is used or likely to be used for human
consumption or domestic purposes or manufacturing food or drink for human
consumption, is polluted or likely to be contaminated”
Water quality conservation: Various measures are being undertaken for conservation of
water quality on bodies of inland water such as rivers and lakes, including the
establishment of environmental quality standards, effluent control at factories and other
places of work, construction of sewerage systems and implementation of purification
measures on rivers.
Power of the Minister to enforce conservation: Sections of the Water Act should give
power to the Minister {MEWD) the duty to promote the conservation and proper use of
water resources and the provision of water supplies and to ensure the effective execution
by water undertakers under his control and direction, of a national policy relating to
water.
4. Catchment Council: It shall be the duty of the catchment council or board in exercising
the functions conferred on or transferred to them by or under this Act, to conserve so far
as practicable the water resources of their area.
Measurement of precipitation: Precipitation measurements shall be made to determine
the level of water use in a given year. The Minister shall have power to direct that this
shall be so.
Groundwater - Public property: Until recently, underground water was regarded as the
absolute property of the land owner on which was situated a well or borehole from which
it was obtained, a land could use it to any extent and manner, limited only by the quantity
one could get, not withstanding any effect it had on his neighbours.
As regards surface water including water flowing in a known and defined channel the
common law, as generally understood is that a “riparian owner”, that is the one owning
land abutting on a river, is entitled, subject to any prescriptive rights which may have
been acquired, to receive the natural flow of the river and he must pass this on, together
with any accretion there may be on his land, to his neighbours downstream. He has,
however, the right to use the water of the river to a reasonable extent for the purposes of
his property. What may be “reasonable” in any particular case may be a matter for the
courts.
In the absence of prescriptive rights, therefore, no one can abstract water from a river or
stream or materially alter the conditions of flow except by statutory authority and in
granting this authority Parliament or the appropriate Government Department will have
regard to all existing uses and the character of the river and will prescribe limits of
abstraction and if that is substantial in relation to the particular river, a minimum quantity
bellow which the flow shall not be reduced.
Compensation: If a river is impounded the abstracting authority will come under the
obligation of discharging from the reservoir a specified daily quantity known as
Compensation Water, which usually has to be accepted all persons interested as “full
compensation for all water impounded by the authorized works”
The undertakers shall make full compensation to all parties interested for all damage
sustained by them through construction works on the water source.
In any case where no express provision with respect to the compensation is made by the
special Act, the undertakers shall pay to the owners and occupiers of, and other persons
interested in any lands or streams taken or used for the purposes of that Act, or
injuriously affected. Compensation for the value of the lands or streams so taken or used,
and for all damage sustained by the owners, etc.
Parliament has, therefore, always had regard to existing rights in rivers but nevertheless
recognized that they must under certain circumstances be subordinated to the public
5. interest, subject to compensation for actual damage, such compensation being either in
money or in water.
Construction of New Boreholes: A provision to control the introduction of new
boreholes and wells and to some extent further abstraction from existing ones should be
made. The provision applies only in an area generally known as a “conservation area”
within which the Minister is satisfied that “special measures are necessary in the public
interest” and has made an order defining the area in question.
License: Within such an area, no person shall, without first obtaining from the Minister a
license which can and usually does contain limitations and conditions –
a) Construct any well, borehole or other work for the purpose of abstracting
underground water, or,
b) Extend any existing well, borehole or other work for the purpose of abstracting
additional quantities of additional water,
Unless
c) The water is required solely and to the extent necessary for the domestic
requirements of his household,
d) The construction or extension is expressly authorized by any enactment, or,
e) The boring, etc., is experimental.
The section should also make it an offence within such an area to cause or allow
underground water to run to waste or to abstract water in excess of reasonable
requirements.
“Conservation Orders” should be made, defining most areas in which they may be
considered necessary at the present time, and within these areas the previous unlimited
right of the owner of the land to abstract water has gone.
The general types of conservation pricing options are: Repeal of volume discounts;
increasing block rates; seasonal rates; and excess loading or excess use charges.
6. Chapter 2
Water Supply
Provision of water for domestic use: Water undertakers shall provide in their mains and
communication pipes a supply of wholesome water sufficient for domestic purposes of all
owners and occupiers of premises within the limits of supply who under the special Act
are entitled to demand a supply for those purposes. Domestic preference shall be given to
domestic water use. The user shall have the right to apply to the concerned Minister
where a supply for non-domestic purposes is refused or is offered on unacceptable terms.
Water undertakers have a statutory liability to provide water for domestic purposes with
the liability to financial penalties if in default also a liability to supply water for non-
domestic purposes subject to the direction of the appropriate central authority in cases of
dispute.
Additional water requirements: In general terms and irrespective of the procedure
adopted, proposals by Water Undertakers to develop additional sources of supply or
acquire further water rights are subject to the giving of statutory and public notices so
that any interested parties who may consider themselves prejudiced by the proposals may
enter objections. In the cases of procedure by Ministerial Order objections are heard at
public inquiries and under parliamentary committees. Any order proposed by the Minister
is subject to confirmation by parliament if objections are sustained after a public enquiry
has been held and a provision order made.
Protective measures to surf-guard reservoirs against pollution should be carefully
chosen. Water must be treated to meet the acceptable World Health Organisation (WHO)
standards for drinking water.
The public water suppliers should be prepared to take appropriate action in a timely
manner, whenever the monthly or bi-monthly records indicate that a water conservation
problem needs to be addressed. It is anticipated that many water utilities will want to go
beyond this level of detail and closely examine daily and even hourly water use figures.
The water utility should prepare separate subsections for long-term water conservation
practices related to each of the following three areas: (a) education, (b) management and
(c) regulation. For each of these three water conservation areas, the water utility should:
(a) prepare a summary of historical and current water use efficiency practices undertaken
by the water utility, with special attention to the specific water use efficiency practices;
(b) provide a list of specific water use efficiency practices that the water utility will be
doing on a long-term basis; and (c) indicate the target date for beginning each specific
water use efficiency practice listed by the water utility.
7. Chapter 3
Use of Water in Agriculture
Irrigation: Of major significance for the consideration of water conservation is the need
for water usage in irrigation particularly the irrigation of crops grown on a farm scale.
The judicious use of irrigation in agriculture and horticulture should be encouraged
because of a number of benefits which result especially in lowering of the unit cost of
production and stabilization of crop yields. Water in agriculture is used for livestock
watering, aquaculture and irrigation.
Development of reservoirs: Some consideration will be provided to the development of
reservoirs and economic aspects; farmers will be assisted by government grants to
conserve water in small private reservoirs. Small user groups of farms combining in
private conservation works would also be considered. If resources are to be developed as
far as is practicable, this development will require co-ordination and wider methods of
conservations will need to be considered.
Wastewater Reusing: Wastewater comes in two forms, graywater, which comes from
showers laundry machines, and dishwashers; and blackwater, which is the sewage from
toilets. Reusing graywater for flush toilets and landscaping can provide enormous savings
of potable water. Buildings can be designed or retrofitted to allow for separate drain lines
to accommodate this strategy.
Increasing wastewater is seen as a resource, and it is often reused for productive uses
since it contains nutrients that have the potential for use in agriculture, aquaculture, and
other activities. The water and nutrient content in particular can be very useful for
agriculture purposes - for example through irrigation of fodder, fibre and other seed crops
and, to a limited extent for the irrigation of orchards, vineyards, and other crops. The
wastewater can be treated and reused for irrigation in potable purposes through biological
wastewater treatment such as wetlands. This serves two purposes, it serves water, and it
recycles the pollutants in the waste as food for biological treatment systems.
Water Harvesting: It is defined as the collection of runoff for its productive use. Water
harvesting supports a flourishing agriculture in many dry areas where rainfall is erratic in
distribution. It is practiced in the drier areas where crops cannot grow depending only on
rainfall.
Rainwater Collection: It is a technology used for the collection and storing rainwater for
human use from rooftops, land surfaces or rock catchments using simple techniques such
as jars and pots as well as engineered technique. Collected rainwater from cisterns and
catch basins can be used to provide for landscaping needs and can be treated and used as
potable water.
8. Changing Plant Varieties and Reusing of water
Switching to crops with lower irrigation requirements and minimising irrigation
demand (require support from extension services, access to capital and to markets);
Reuse of drainage water (require awareness by farmers and minor investment in
building bunds and digging diversion channels);
Mulching to retain soil moisture (require awareness by farmers and availability of
plant material);
Running irrigation systems at their maximum designed capacity to reduce water
stealing and simplify operations;
Storm-water Retention is a system provides a more environmental and aesthetic
alternative to conventional drainage system. The storm water can be retained in a
„pond‟ for reuse in the dry season.
Water conservation can also be achieved by carrying out specific water Conservation
projects. “Water conservation projects” are those projects that reduce water loss or water
consumption through activities such as, but not limited to, the following:
Canal lining
Improving/rehabilitating canals or waterways
Piping of canals
Constructing control structures
Improving/rehabilitating structures (pump stations)
Installing pressurized irrigation systems
Repairing sprinkler systems
Installing moisture barriers
Reducing water consumption through changes in irrigation practices (drip irrigation,
aspersion, micro-aspersion, etc.)
Constructing facilities for desalination, water reclamation and recharge
Improving/rehabilitating structures (lining of regulating reservoir)
Installing/improving metering systems/devices (metering)
Installing/improving control and distribution structures and the operation of these
devices (automation, new installation, improvements to operational roads)
Land compaction and land levelling for purposes of water conservation
Installing fertilizer application systems (in pressured systems)
Improving operations that reduce the time and complexity of irrigation
Installing plot remote moisture sensors.
Irrigation Requirements
Automatic irrigation systems should comply with the following guidelines. These
guidelines should be noted on a plan drawn by the Government (Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives).
9. 1. Adjustable flow controls valves on circuit remote control valves. Pressure regulation
component(s) shall be required where static pressure exceeds manufacturer‟s
recommended operating range (30-60 psi).
2. Valves and circuits shall be separated based on water use, (hydro-zoned) so that turf
and shrub areas, sun and shade areas, as well as high and low runoff areas may be
watered separately.
3. The minimum precipitation rate that can be applied by any zone of conventional
irrigation should be in accordance with Conservation Plans. Sprinkler heads shall have
matched precipitation rates within each control valve circuit.
4. Serviceable check valves shall be required where elevation differential may cause low
head drainage adjacent to paving areas.
5. Sprinkler head spacing shall be designed for head-to-head coverage or heads shall be
spaced as per manufacturer‟s recommendations and adjusted for prevailing winds. The
system shall be designed for minimum run-off. There shall be no direct over spray onto
impervious areas.
6. All automatic irrigation systems shall be equipped with a controller capable of dual or
multiple programming. Controllers should have multiple cycles start capacity and flexible
calendar program, including the capability of day of week or day interval watering. All
automatic irrigation systems shall be equipped with a rain sensor shut-off device.
7. Irrigation construction plans shall include a water budget. A water budget should
include:
a) Estimated monthly water use (in litre or cubic meters per application) and the area (in
square meters or hectare) irrigated.
b) Precipitation rates for each valve circuit.
c) Monthly irrigation schedule for the plant establishment period (first three months) and
recommended yearly watering schedule, including seasonal adjustments.
d) Location of emergency irrigation system shut-off valve.
8. All in-ground irrigation systems shall have backflow prevention device installed that
meet local code.
Where available, reclaimed water will be used for all purposes allowed by rules
established by the Government of Zambia, if the reclaimed water is less costly than
potable water or other water currently being used by the purposes that reclaimed water
can be use.
11. CONTENTS OF COMPREHENSIVE WATER CONSERVATION PLAN
SPECIFY CONSERVATION PLANNING GOALS
List of conservation planning goals and their relationship to supply-side planning
Description of community involvement in the goals-development process
DEVELOP A WATER SYSTEM PROFILE
Inventory of existing facilities, production characteristics, and water use
Overview of conditions that might affect the water system and conservation planning
PREPARE A DEMAND FORECAST
Forecast of anticipated water demand for future time periods
Adjustments to demand based on known and measurable factors
Discussion of uncertainties and “what if” (sensitivity) analysis
DESCRIBE PLANNED FACILITIES
Improvements planned for the water system over a reasonable planning horizon
Estimates of the total, annualised, and unit cost (per litre) of planned supply-side
improvements and additions
Preliminary forecast of total installed water capacity over the planning period based
on anticipated improvements and additions
IDENTIFY WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES
Review of conservation measures that have been implemented or that are planned for
implementation
Discussion of legal or other barriers to implementing recommended measures
Identification of measures for further analysis
ANALYZE BENEFITS AND COSTS
Estimate of total implementation costs and anticipated water savings
Cost effectiveness assessment for recommended conservation measures
Comparison of implementation costs to avoided supply-side costs
SELECT CONSERVATION MEASURES
Selection criteria for choosing conservation measures
Identification of selected measures
Explanation for why recommended measures will not be implemented
Strategy and timetable for implementing conservation measures
12. INTEGRATE RESOURCES AND MODIFY FORECASTS
Modification of water demand and supply capacity forecasts to reflect anticipated
effects of conservation
Discussion of the effects of conservation on planned water purchases, improvements,
and additions
Discussion of the effects of planned conservation measures on water utility revenues
PRESENT IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION STRATEGY
13. SPECIFY CONSERVATION PLANNING GOALS
Planning Goals
The planning goals can be developed from different perspective. The planning guidelines
include the analysis of the benefits and cost of conservation activities. Specify
conservation planning goals in terms of anticipated benefits for the water system and its
customers. To the extent practical, involve affected members of the community in the
development of conservation planning goals and throughout the implementation process.
The value of conservation is defined in terms of avoiding supply-side costs to the water
system. Lowering the level of water demand can help water suppliers avoid, downsize, or
postpone the construction and operation of costly supply side facilities.
Planner should plan on revisiting the goals section before finalizing the conservation plan
and periodically thereafter, because goals and the means to achieving them will evolve.
As the water system accomplishes certain conservation goals, new objectives may come
into focus.
Community Involvement in water Conservation
The process of developing goals can involve representatives of various groups in the
community or stakeholders who may be concerned about water system and its future.
Modern resources planning (such as integrated resources planning) emphasizes as an
open process that involves all affected groups so that they can have an opportunity to
express their interests and concerns. Involving the community in goal development serves
an important public education function. Moreover, it is widely believed that involving the
community in developing goals, as well as in the implementation process, can greatly
enhance the success of conservation programmes.
Members of the community who mighty be interested in water conservation include:
Residential water consumers;
Commercial water consumers;
Industrial water consumers;
Wholesale consumers;
Environmental groups;
Civil right groups;
Business and commerce group;
Recreational water users;
Agricultural users;
Education institutions;
Government agencies or ministries;
Labour groups.
In addition assisting the water system specify planning goals, community participants
also can have an ongoing role in a system‟s conservation system. Ongoing involvement
14. can help maintain and build support for achieving conservation goals and „get the word
out‟ about conservation effort. Participants can act as a focus group for exploring specific
conservation measures. Participants also provide valuable linkages to key groups –
consumers, business and institutions-who might be involved in implementing certain
conservation measures.
For many water systems, involving the community in water-system planning will be a
new experience. However, most system managers will find that involving members of the
community in developing goals, implementing programmes, and evaluating results in a
very worthwhile investment.
15. DEVELOP A WATER SYSTEM PROFILE
System Profile
Taking inventory of existing resources and conditions is an important step in the planning
process. A water system profile can help systems assess their present circumstances and
design strategies to meet emerging needs. Most water systems should maintain the data
and information necessary for building a system profile
Summarize the services and operating characteristics of the water
system. Provide an overview of conditions and a description of climate,
water availability, or other factors that might affect water conservation
planning.
System Conditions
The checklist provided suggests the need for water conservation planning. While all
water systems can benefit from efficient improvements, water conservation can be
especially beneficial for systems experiencing water shortages or rapid increases in
demand. For example, water system facing one or more of the following conditions are
strongly urged to consider the fullest range of conservation measures available to them in
accordance with the guidelines:
Systems in state-designated critical water or stressed areas;
Systems experiencing frequent droughts, emergencies, or safe yield problem;
Systems with excessive unaccounted-for water or water losses;
Systems anticipating rapid growth in water demand;
Systems entering into major construction cycles.
In addition to the summary worksheet, planners should prepare a brief written discussion
of the significant conditions affecting their systems. Particular attention can be paid to
climate and water availability, but other factors affecting the system can be considered as
well. This information can be used to help systems identify problems and opportunities
through the planning process.
Current Conservation efforts
Worksheet 3 is provided so that water systems can describe their current water
conservation activities and programme. For each conservation measure implemented,
planner can indicate the approximate annual water savings achieved, when
implementation for the measure began, and whether continued implementation is
planned. Any other pertinent information on current efforts and their effectiveness can be
provided in the plan as well.
16. Worksheet 1 WATER SYSTEM PROFILE
A SERVICE CHARACTERISTICS Number
1 Estimated service population
2 Estimated service area (Square Kilometres)
3 Kilometres of mains
4 Number of treatment plants
5 Number of separate water systems
6 Interconnection with other systems
B ANNUAL WATER SUPPLY Annual volume Number of Percent
intakes or metered
sources points
7 Groundwater %
8 Surface water %
9 Purchases: raw %
10 Purchases: treated %
11 Total annual water supply %
C SERVICE CONNECTIONS Connections Water sales Percent
metered
12 Residential single-family %
13 Residential multi-family %
14 Commercial %
15 Industrial %
16 Public or government %
17 Wholesale %
18 Other %
19 Total connections %
D WATER DEMAND Annual volume Percent total Per
connection
20 Residential sale
21 Non-residential sale
22 Wholesale sale
23 Other sales
24 Non-account water: authorized uses
25 Non-account water unauthorized uses
26 Total system demand
E AVERAGE & PEAK DEMAND Volume Total supply Percent of
capacity total capacity
27 Average-day demand %
28 Maximum-day demand %
29 Maximum-hour demand %
F PRICING Rate structure Metering Billing
frequency frequency
30 Residential rate
31 Non-residential rate
32 Other rate
G PLANNING Prepared a plan Date Filed with
government
33 Capital, facility, or supply plan
34 Drought or emergency rate
35 Water conservation plan
17. WORKSHEET 2 OVERVIEW OF SYSTEM CONDITIONS
Increasing need for conservation Don’t
Know
Line (Tick)
Conditions Check applicable description (Tick)
A CLIMATE AND WATER AVAILABILITY
1 Average precipitation High Moderate Low
2 Average temperature Low Moderate High
3 Critical supply areas No At risk Yes
4 Competing water users No Possibly Yes
5 Environmental constraint No Possibly Yes
6 Quality/quantity concern No Possibly Yes
7 Seasonal variation in climate Low Moderate High
8 Instream flow problems Low Moderate High
9 Shortage or emergence frequency Low Moderate High
B INFRASTRUCTURE CONDITIONS
10 Age of system Newer Middle Older
11 General condition of system Good Fair Poor
12 Water losses and leaks Low Moderate High
13 Uncounted-for water Low Moderate High
14 Safe yield of supply exceeded No At risk Yes
15 Wastewater discharge exceeded No At risk Yes
16 Wastewater capacity exceeded No At risk yes
17 Potential for recycling and reuse Low Moderate High
18 Improvement plans Low Moderate High
19 Anticipated investment Low Moderate High
C SYSTEM DEMOGRAPHICS
20 Rate of population growth per year Low Moderate High
21 Rate of demand growth per year Low Moderate High
22 Rate of economic growth per year Low Moderate High
23 Per capita water use (by class) Low Moderate High
24 Ration of peak of average demand Low Moderate High
25 Presence of large-volume users Low Moderate High
D OTHER FACTORS
26
27
28
29
18. WORKSHEET 3 CURRENT WATER CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES
Summarize the system‟s current water conservation activities:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Water conservation measures Approximate Implemented Is continued
annual water since (Date) implementatio
saving (if known) n planned?
19. PREPARE A DEMAND FORECAST
Demand Forecasting
Forecasting water use or water demand is a critical part of the planning process.
Forecasting can range from simple projections based on anticipated growth in the
population to complex models using several variables to explain variation in water use.
Forecasting can either be made for a water system as a whole or forecasts can be
considered more accurately for separate classification of water use or sectors.
Prepare a forecast of anticipated water demand for selected time
periods. To the extent practical, the planner should take into account
variations in demand based on type of water usage, as well as perform
a ‘what if’ analysis.
The guidelines suggest that planners prepare forecasts for 5-year, 10-year and 20-year
intervals. The longer the forecast the greater the uncertainty and forecasts should be
revisited and updated on a regular basis. The forecast should recognize the effects of
conservation measures already implemented or being implemented.
Forecasting method
Worksheet 4 separates (at a minimum) residential and non-residential customers. The
forecast can be made per capita or per connection basis. For non-residential sector,
planners should use employees, jobs, or another appropriate explanatory variable.
20. Worksheet 4 Preliminary Water Demand Forecast [a]
Line Item Current 5-year 10-year 20-year
year forecast forecast forecast
A RESIDENTIAL DEMAND
1 Current annual water residential sales (total
litres)
2 Current population served [b]
3 Residential sales per capita (line 1 divided by
line 2) [b]
4 Projected population [b]
5 Projected annual residential water demand
(line 3 multiplied by line 3)
B NONRESISENTIAL DEMAND (C)
6 Current annual water non-residential sales
(total litres)
7 Current number of employees or jobs [c]
8 Water use per employee or job (line 6 divided
by line 7)
9 Projected number of employees or jobs
10 Projected annual non-residential water
demand (line 8 multiplied by line 9)
C NON-ACCOUNT WATER (WATER NOT SOLD TO CUSTOMERS
11 Current and forecast amount [d]
D WATER SYSTEM TOTAL DEMAND
12 Current total annual water demand (add lines
1, 6, and 11)
13 Projected total annual water demand (add
lines 5, 10, and 11)
14 Adjustment to forecast (+ or -)
15 Current (line 12) and adjusted total annual
water demand forecast (add line13 and 14)
16 Current and projected annual supply capacity
[f]
17 Difference between total use and total supply
capacity (+ or -) (subtract line 12 from line
15)
E AVERAGE-DAY AND MAXIMUM-DAY DEMAND
18 Average-day demand (line 15 divided by 365)
19 Current maximum-day demand
20 Maximum-day to average-day demand ratio
(line 20 divided by line 19)
21 Projected maximum-day demand (line 18
multiplied by line 20 for all forecast years)
22 Adjustment to maximum-day demand forecast
[e]
23 Current (line 19) and adjusted maximum-day
demand forecast (add lines 21 and 22)
24 Daily supply capacity (divide line 16 by 365)
25 Ration of maximum-day demand to daily
supply capacity (divide line 23 by line 24)
[a] Separate forecasts should be prepared for large-volume users.
[b] Planners can choose to use serve connections or households instead of population and per-
connection water use instead of per-capita water use.
21. [c] Explanatory variable other than employees or jobs can be used as appropriate. The forecast should
be disaggregated by sector of water use to the greatest extent possible (for example, commercial
and industrial water use and non-account water) and a qualitative sensitivity analysis („what if‟)
should be performed for each sector‟s forecast.
[d] Please provide an explanation of the forecast of non-account water, including all relevant
assumptions.
[e] Please provide an explanation of adjustment to your forecasts, including all relevant assumptions.
[f] Supply capacity should take into account available supplies (permits), treatment capacity, and
distribution system capacity and reflect the practical total supply capacity of the system, including
purchased water.
22. DESCRIBE PLANNED FACILITIES
Supply Forecasting
In this conservation plan, planners are asked to prepare an estimate of supply costs based
on meeting the level of water demand specified in the unadjusted demand forecast. This
is a critical part of the analysis because it establishes the anticipated cost of supply-side
improvements and additions and this cost estimate will be used to represent the value of
conservation or demand-side activities.
Describe improvements planned for the water system over a
reasonable planning horizon; identify the types of improvements
proposed, and unit cost of the improvements. Prepare a
preliminary forecast of installed capacity.
The benefits of conservation extend into the future it is important to take a forward-
looking approach to supply costs. The concept of marginal or incremental cost captures
the idea that the “true” value of a supply resource can be measured in terms of the cost of
the next increment of supply. If only high-cost supplies are available, the marginal or
incremental cost will be high. For many communities, future increments of supply will
be very costly. The value of a conserved amount of water at a future point, because that
is the supply option being displaced by conservation.
Cost Analysis
A reasonable accounting of anticipated supply costs is needed in order to compare the
cost of supply-side measures to the cost of demand –side or conservation measures (on a
cost-per-gallon basis). Planners should choose an appropriate time horizon; a twenty-
year or other suitable period can be used. The choice of time frame should be consistent
with the demand forecast, as well as the other planning considerations.
Planners should begin by preparing an estimate of major improvements and additions that
will be required over the planning horizon in order to meet anticipated demand (including
a safe reserve margin). Detailed cost estimates may be available from facility plans or
other planning documents. Worksheet 5 can be used to summarize improvements and
additions, which are disaggregated into three categories: source of supply, transmission
and treatment, and distribution. (Additional categories can be used as needed.)
Planners should consider all capital facility improvements and additions. Improvements
include renovations and expansions needed to maintain or enhance safety or reliability
within existing facilities. Additions consist of new facilities. Routine maintenance
improvements should not be included. Anticipated water purchases and costs also should
be recorded on Worksheet 5. For this part of the analysis, the effects of conservation
measures currently being implemented should be considered, but the effects of new
conservation measures on the need for supply capacity or water purchases should be
excluded.
23. If no capital improvements and additions are planned, ‘0’ values can be entered and the
estimate of supply costs can be based on operating costs (including the cost of energy,
chemicals, and purchased water).
Estimating Incremental Supply Costs
Worksheet 6 provides a method for placing a value on supply-side improvements and
additions. Improvements and additions are separated into categories: source of supply,
water treatment facilities, treated water storage, and major transmission lines. Water
purchases are separately recorded. Capital costs over the useful life of the anticipated
projects (including financing costs) are annualised and reported on a per-gallon basis.
Financing costs can be incorporated into the calculation of annualised cost by using the
expected interest rate for financing the project(s) or the system‟s overall cost of capital.
Supply-side facilities are designed to meet different types of water demand (as
summarized in Table below; similarly, different conservation measures affect different
types of water demand. Planners should identify, as reasonably possible, the extent to
which improvements and additions are needed to meet average and/or peak demand.
Capital-cost reductions associated with conservation will depend on the extent to which
supply-side facilities can be eliminated, postponed, or downsized. The effect of
conservation on the need for facilities will depend on the demand pattern of the
individual utility, as well as its construction cycle (that is, the timing of facilities
currently under development). Conservation can be particularly beneficial for systems
that have a sufficient planning horizon to integrate conservation with conventional
resource options. In some cases, capital costs cannot be avoided but conservation can
still yield savings in operating expenditures. A degree of analyst judgment is required in
order to evaluate incremental costs and to integrate supply-side and demand-side
resources.
24. Table 1: Relationship of Water Demand to Supply Facilities
Type of Water Demand Type of Water Supply Facility
Average-day Source of supply facilities, including raw water
Storage facilities such as reservoirs
Maximum-day (peak) Water treatment plants
Major transmission lines
Maximum-hour [a] Treated water storage facilities
Distribution mains [b]
Pumping stations [b]
Source: Adapted from Charles W. Howe and F. Linaweaver, „The Impact of price on Residential Water
Demand and its Relationship to system Design and price Structure, Water Resources Research 3 (First
Quarter 1967): 13-32
[a] Maximum-day demand plus fire-flow requirements.
[b] These facilities should be considered in the analysis if they could be affected by such conservation
measures as leak detection and repair, pressure management, or integrated resources management.
This approach produces a very rough estimate of the value of supply-side options. Costs are not escalated
(to account for the increasing value of water-supply resources over time), discounted (to account for the
time and value of money), or adjusted for inflation.
Preliminary Supply-Capacity Forecast
Based on the anticipated improvements and additions, planners also can present a
preliminary forecast of total supply capacity over the planning period. Worksheet 4-7 is
provided for this purpose. The forecast, which can be presented in a table or graph, can
be used to indicate when changes to capacity are expected to occur. The total supply
forecast should reflect both additions to capacity and retirements. Improvements that
allow the system to maintain capacity can be indicated with entries under both additions
(to reflect the improvement) and retirements (to reflect the facilities taken out of service).
A similar analysis can be used for wastewater facilities.
The supply forecast is preliminary because it can and will be revised later in the plan to
reflect the effect of conservation on water supply needs.
25. Worksheet 5: Anticipated Improvements and Additions
Describe the planned improvements and additions: …………………………………………………….
………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
Describe time frame for planned improvements and additions: ………………………………………
………...………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
Improve-
Type of project [a] ment Addition State date End date
Source of supply ……………… ……………
Water treatment facilities ……………… ……………
Treated water storage ……………… ……………
Major transmission lines ……………… ……………
Others …………………... ……………… ……………
Notes
Needs for Project (s) (check all that apply)
Enhance compliance with regulations ………………….……………
Replace older equipment or facilities ………………………..…………
Meet average-day demand ……………………………………
Meet maximum-day demand ……………………………………
Meet future growth needs ……………………………………
Others …………………... ……………………………………
Funding Interest rate
Cost of financing
Overall cost of capital (if known)
Water purchase
Anticipated future water purchase ………………………………. (Litres per year)
Cost of water purchase ………………………………. (Kwachas per year)
[a] Comprehensive plans can include wastewater facilities.
26. Worksheet 6: Cost of Supply-Side Facilities
Line Item Facilities Water Estimate of
for purchases simple
metering needed to incremental
average-day meet supply cost
demand demand (K/litre)
Sources of Water Treated Major [b]
supply treatment water transmission
facilities storage lines
A SUPPLY CAPACITY IN ANNUAL LITRES [C]
1 Current installed
capacity or water
purchases
2 Planned
improvements
and additions
3 Planned
retirements
4 Future installed
capacity or
purchases (line 1
plus line 2 less
line 3)
B COST OF PLANNED IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS
5 Approximate
total cost of
planned
improvements
and additions
identified in line
2 (including
financing costs)
6 Expected life of
new facilities
(years)
7 Estimated annual
operating costs
[d]
8 Estimated annual
operating costs
[d]
9 Estimated total
annual cost (line
7 plus line 8) [e]
10 Per unit cost of
new facilities
(line 9 divided
by line 2)
11 Simple
incremental
supply cost (add
all entries from
line 10)
[a] Additional facilities or capital equipment can be included as appropriate.
27. [b] The plan should indicate whether purchases are needed to meet average-day or maximum-day
demand or both.
[c] Planners should select a reasonable planning horizon for supply facilities and use the same time
frame for all facilities
[d] Annual variable operating cost (including energy, chemicals, and water purchase).
[e] This calculation of simplified value does not include a discount rate, an escalation rate, or an
adjustment for inflation. This analysis also can be extended to include the incremental cost of
wastewater collection and treatment.
28. Worksheet 7: Preliminary Supply-Capacity Forecast
Year Additions (+) Retirements (-) Total supply capacity for the
system (annual or daily)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
29. IDENTIFY CONSERVATION MEASURES
Levels and Measures
Measures include both supply-side and demand-side management techniques for saving
water and range from relatively simple educational tools to the promotion of advanced
water-efficiency technologies. Use of any particular measure depends on whether it meets
cost-effectiveness and other planning criteria and whether its use complies with
applicable laws and regulations, including state and plumbing principles.
Identifying Conservation Measures
Worksheet 8 summarizes all measures and highlights the minimum set of measures
recommended for consideration in the Intermediate Guidelines. Systems should use the
checklist to review and summarize the measures that are currently implemented, planned,
or not planned at this time. Planners also can identify additional measures and practices
as they develop their conservation plans.
Water systems following the Intermediate Guidelines are expected to implement the very
fundamental and widely accepted practices highlighted under Level 1. if Level 1
measures are not in place and not planned for implementation, planners should submit a
strong justification, including a cost-effectiveness analysis if it is the basis for not
implementing the measure.
Planners can screen the measures in terms of general feasibility. In some cases, it may
not be possible for a system to implement a measure because of legal restrictions or for
other compelling reasons. The conservation plan should provide an explanation if a
measure cannot be implemented for the period of time covered by the plan. It is not
necessary to prepare a cost effectiveness analysis for measures that cannot be
implemented.
30. Worksheet 8: Checklist of Conservation Measures [a]
Al Pla
re n
ad to
y im
i ple
m me
pl nt
Measure [a] e (Ti Comment [b]
m ck)
en
te
d
(T
ic
k)
LEVEL MEASURES
Universal metering [B]
Source-water metering
Service-connection metering
Meter public-use water
Fixed-interval meter reading
Meter-accuracy analysis
Test, calibrate, repair, and replace meters
Water accounting and loss control [A]
Account for water
Repair known leaks
Analysis of nonaccount water
Water system audit
Leak detection and repair strategy
Automated sensors/telemetry
Loss-prevention programme
Costing and pricing [B]
Cost-of-service accounting
User charges
Metered rates
Cost analysis
Nonpromotional rates
Advanced pricing methods
Information and education [B]
Understandable water bill
Information available
Informative bill
Water-bill inserts
School program
Public-education program
Workshops
Advisory committee
[Worksheet continue. See footnotes at end of worksheet.]
31. Worksheet 8 (continued)
Al Pla
re n
ad to
y im
i ple
m me
pl nt
Measure [a] e (Ti Comment [b]
m ck)
en
te
d
(T
ic
k)
LEVEL 2 MEASURES
Water-use audits [B]
Audits of large-volume users ……………………………………………
Large-landscape audits ……………………………………………
Selective end-use audits ……………………………………………
Retrofits [B]
Retrofit kits available ……………………………………………
Distribution of retrofit kits ……………………………………………
Targeted programs ……………………………………………
……………………………………………
Pressure management [A]
System-wide pressure regulation ……………………………………………
Selective use of pressure-reducing valves ……………………………………………
Landscape efficiency [P]
Promotion of landscape efficiency ……………………………………………
Landscape planning and renovation ……………………………………………
Selective irrigation sub-metering ……………………………………………
Irrigation management ……………………………………………
……………………………………………
LEVEL 3 MEASURES ……………………………………………
Replacements and promotion [B]
Rebates and incentives {non-residential} ……………………………………………
Rebates and incentives {residential} ……………………………………………
Promotion of new technologies ……………………………………………
Reuse and recycling [B]
Industrial applications ……………………………………………
Large-volume irrigation applications ……………………………………………
Selective residential applications ……………………………………………
32. Water-use regulation [B]
Water-use standards and regulations ……………………………………………
Requirements for new developments ……………………………………………
Integrated resource management [B]
Supply-side technologies ……………………………………………
Demand-side technologies ……………………………………………
[a] For more information about measures see Appendix A. Non-italicized measures should be
considered at a minimum
[b] Note special issues related to the measure, including legal or other obstacles precluding
implementation.
Note: Measures can affect average-day demand [A], maximum-day {peak} demand [p], or both [B], as
indicated.
Water Savings
Worksheet 9 should be completed for each conservation measure identifies. In some
cases planners may want to combine measures based on the conservation program they
envision. All interrelated measures that are expected to result in an identifiable amount
of water savings should be combined and treated as one measure in order to avoid
counting the planned water savings more than once in the analysis
The worksheet begins with an open-ended description of the measure and an estimate of
water savings. The anticipated life span for the measure should be indicated. Planners
also should indicate whether the measure is targeted toward reduction in average-day
demand, maximum-day demand, or both. Estimates of potential water savings should be
as realistic as possible, based on system and regional considerations. For some measures,
particularly those dependent on customer responses (such as information and education
programs), the estimation will reflect a high degree of uncertainty. Planners can choose
to use a range of estimates under these circumstances.
The plan should indicate typical water savings from the measure, the number of planned
installations, and the anticipated life span for the measure, as well as whether the measure
is expected to reduce average-day or maximum-day demand (or both)
Implementation Costs
Worksheet 9 includes a method for summing the total costs of implementing the
measures. All costs associated with implementation should be included. Planner should
obtain reasonable cost estimates and these include: Materials, labour, rebates or other
payments, marketing and advertising, administration, consulting or contracting and
others. A realistic implementation schedule should be considered.
Cost-Effectiveness
The analysis of cost-effectiveness for each measure builds on the identification of supply-
side costs. Using this analysis, the cost of conservation can be compared to the simple
33. incremental cost of supply. The difference between the per-litre cost of conservation and
the per-litre cost of supply is a simple indicator of the potential benefits (or cost savings)
from conservation.
Net Benefits
The net benefit from implementing the measure is shown by subtracting total programme
costs from total programme benefits. When benefits exceed costs, a measure is
considered reasonably efficient and a good candidate for implementation.
Worksheet 9: Analysis of Each Conservation Measure or Group Measures
Describe conservation measure: ………………………………………………………
Typical water savings from the measure: …………………………per ……………
Number of planned installations: ……………………………..
Anticipated life span for the measure: ……………………..Years
The measure is designed to reduce:
Average-day demand
Maximum-day demand
Both average-day and maximum-day demand
Line Item Amount Amount
A COST OF THE CONSERVATION MEASURE Per unit [b] Total cost of
measure
1 Materials Kwacha Kwacha
2 Labour
3 Rebates or other payments
4 Marketing and advertising
5 Administration
6 Consulting or contracting
7 Other
8 Total programme costs for the life of the measure K
(Add line 1 through 7) [c]
B ESTIMATE SAVINGS
9 Number of units to be installed [d]
10 Estimated annual water savings for the measure in litres [e]
11 Total estimated annual savings for the measure in litres (multiply line
9 by line 10)
12 Expected life span for the measure in years
13 Total life span estimated savings for the measure in litres (multiply
line 11 by line 12)
C ANALYSIS OF COST EFFECTIVENESS Amount
14 Cost of water saved by the measure (line 8 divided by line 13) /litre
15 Simple incremental cost of water supply [f] /litre
16 Cost comparison (line 15 less line 14) /litre
D NET BENEFIT OF CONSERVATION Amount
17 Estimated value of water saved by the measure based on incremental K
supply cost (line 13 multiplied by line 15)
18 Net value of water saved by each measure (line 17 less line 18) K
34. [a] This analysis is used to aid the comparison and selection of measures. Planners will
estimate actual effects of conservation on planned capital facilities. A separate analysis should be
performed for each conservation measure, but measures can be combined if they jointly produce
water savings.
[b] Examples of a unit are a toilet, a retrofit kit, and an audit. A unit estimate may not be appropriate
for each measure, in which can total programme water savings and costs for the measure can be
used.
[c] Include all recurring operation and maintenances costs over the life of the measure.
[d] Units can be individual product units (such as toilet) or groups of products (such as household
retrofits), as long as the analysis is consistent. Leave blank if values do not apply.
[e] Foe example, water savings per retrofit. Leave blank if unit values do not apply.
[f] From Worksheet 6, line 11
Worksheet 10: Comparison of Benefits and Costs of the Conservation Measures
Line Conservation measure Total programme Anticipated Cost of water Net benefit of
[a] cost for the annual water saved by the implementing
measure savings in litres measure the measure
[b] [c] (K/Litre) [e]
[d]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20…
[a] = Combines measures that produce joint conservation savings should be treated as one
measure to avoid duplicate counting.
[b] = From Worksheet 9 line 8
[c] = From Worksheet 9 line 11.
[d] = From Worksheet 9 line 14.
[e] = From Worksheet 9 line 18. This estimate of net benefit does not consider societal benefit
and costs.
35. SELECT CONSERVATION MEASURES
Selection Criteria
Describe the process by which conservations were selected for implementation, including
identification of the selection criteria. Summarise the selected measure and total
anticipated programme costs for implementation.
Criteria that can be used in selecting conservation measures for implementation include:
Programme cost
Cost-effectiveness
Ease of implementation
Budgetary consideration
Staff resources and capability
Ratepayer impacts
Environmental and social justice
Water right and permits
Legal issues or constraints
Regulatory approvals
Public acceptance
Timelines of savings
Consistency with other programmes
Worksheet 11 provides a simple format for summarising the selection of measures. For
each measure, planners should indicate whether the measure was selected for
implementation. Planners also should identify the primary reason or reasons for selecting
or rejecting the measure. Special conditions or actions that are required before selection
measure can be implemented (such as an approval from regulator) should be noted.
The selected conservation measures should allow the planners to estimate the expected
reductions in average-day and maximum-day demand.
36. Worksheet 11: Selection of Conservation Measures and Estimate of Water Savings
Line S Primary criteria for Estimated reduction in demand for
e selecting or rejecting selected measures (Cubic Meters per
l the conservation day)
e measure for [a]
c implementation
t Average-day Maximum-day
Measure e demand demand
d
(
T
i
c
k
)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20…
Total
[a] Based on Worksheet 9 line 11. Planners will need to convert estimates of annual water savings to
estimates of reductions in average-day and maximum-day demand for each measure or group of measures.
37. INTEGRATE RESOURCES AND MODIFY FORECASTS
Modify water demand and supply-capacity forecasts to reflect the anticipated effects of
conservation. Indicate whether and how water savings from conservation will allow
systems to eliminate, downsize, or postpone supply-side projects or water purchases.
Planners should use Worksheet 12 to collate information from previous worksheets and
analyses in order to revise the demand forecasts made in Worksheet 4. Revisions should
reflect changes based on the introduction of new conservation measures. The effects of
measures already being implemented should be included in the original demand forecast.
Planners should identify the anticipated effects of conservation on planned supply-side
improvements and additions. Worksheet 13 is provided for this purpose.
The supply-capacity forecast is revised in Worksheet 14. The revision to the supply-
capacity forecast should be based on Worksheet 13 and consistent with accepted supply-
capacity planning practices. Worksheet 14 also provides a method of summarising
savings in capital and operating costs, based on reductions in supply capacity. Planners
should also estimates reductions operating costs at existing facilities that will occur with
demand reduction. The total programme cost of conservation can be compared with the
savings in total capital and annual operating costs.
Worksheet 12: Modified Demand Forecast
Line Item Current Year 5 Year 10 Year 20
year
1 Average-day demand before conservation [a]
2 Reduction in average-day demand (line 1 less
38. line 2)[b]
3 Average-day demand after conservation
4 Maximum-day demand before conservation [a]
5 Reduction in maximum-day demand (line4 less
line 5) [b]
6 Maximum-day demand after conservation
7 Ratio maximum-day to average-day demand
before conservation (line 4 divided by line 1)
8 Ratio maximum-day to average-day demand
after conservation (line 6 divided by line 3)
[a] From Worksheet 4, line 6.
[b] Based on Worksheet 11
Worksheet 13: Project-Specific Savings
DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT [a]
Describe the supply-side project(s): ………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Project was scheduled to begin: …………………………………………………………………………….
Purpose of the project: Improvement Addition
The project is designed to meet: Average-day demand Maximum-day
demand
Type of project Source of supply
Water treatment facilities
Treated water storage
Major transmission lines
Purchase water
Other ……………………………………………
CHANGES TO PROJECT [b]
Line Item Project supply Project costs
capacity (daily)
Total capital Annual
costs (K) operating
costs (K)
CAPITAL PROJECT IS ELIMINATED
A
1 Original project
2 Savings from elimination (equal line 1)
B CAPITAL PROJECT DOWN SIZED
3 Original project
39. 4 Downsized project
5 Savings from downsizing (line 3 less line 4)
C CAPITAL PROJECT POSTPONED
6 Present value of original project
7 Present value of postponed project
8 Savings from postponement (line 6 less line
7)
D NEED FOR PURCAHSE WATER IS REDUCED [c]
9 Original estimates of purchases
10 Revised estimate of purchases (can be „0‟)
11 Savings from reduced purchases (line 9 less
line 10)
[a] Comprehensive plans can include wastewater facilities.
[b] Based on Worksheet 12 estimates of reduction in demand.
[c] For purchased water, report only annual operating costs and include costs associated with take-or-
pay contract provisions. Transmission facilities needed to transport purchased water should
include capital and operating costs associated with such facilities and reported as capital projects.
Worksheet 14: Modified Supply Forecast and Estimated Total Saving
MODIFIED SUPPLY FORECAST
Line Item Current year Year 5 Year 10 Year 20
A Forecast Supply Capacity (daily)
1
2
3
B Capacity Reserve
4
ESTIMATED TOTAL SAVINGS
Supply Capacity Project cost
(daily) Total Annual
capital operating costs
Line Item costs (K) (K)
C Total Estimated Savings from Changes
to Supply Projects [c]
1 Cost of supply projects before
conservation
2 Cost of supply projects after conservation
3 Savings (line 1 less line 2)
D Total Estimated Savings from Reduced Operating Costs at Existing Facilities [d]
4 Operating costs before conservation
5 Operating costs after conservation
6 Savings (line4 less line 4)
Conservation Programme Costs Total
E programme
cost (K)
40. 7 Total cost of implementing selected
conservation measures [e]
[a] From Worksheet 7.
[b] Based on Worksheet(s) 13.
[c] Based on Worksheet(s) 13
[d] Based on annual variable operating cost (including energy, chemicals, and water purchase).
[e] Based on Worksheet 10
PRESENT IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION STRATEGY
Implementation
Here present a strategy and timetable for implementing conservation measures and other
elements of the conservation plan. Describe proposed approaches for implementing and
evaluating planned conservation measures.
Implementation Measures
Worksheet 15 is a simple template for summarising the water system‟s implementation
and evaluation schedule for the conservation measures. For instance, the schedule can
identify significant implementation actions, a beginning date and a completion date.
Implementation and evaluation
Worksheet 16 provides a very summary of the water system‟s general implementation
and evaluation strategy for the conservation plan. There areas are highlighted and these
are, public involvement, monitoring and evaluation and updates and revisions.
41. Worksheet 15: Implementation Schedule for Measures
Measure Required Beginning Completion
Line action date date Notes
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
42. 11
12
Worksheet 16: Implementation Strategy
A. PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT
Describe plan for public involvement:
B. MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Describe plan for monitoring and evaluation:
Describe plan to collect water demand data:
C. PLAN UPDATES
Describe plan for updates and revisions:
D. ADOPTION OF THE PLAN
43. Date plan completed: ……………………………………………………………………………
Date plan approved: …………………………………………………………………………...
Approved by [governing body]: …………………………………………………………………………..
Signature: …………………………………………………………………………...
APPENDIX
WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES
Level 1 measure
Universal metering; water accounting and loss control; costing and pricing; information
and education
Level 2 measures
44. Water-use audits; Retrofits; Pressure management; Landscape effeicient
Level 3 measure
Replacement and promotion; Reuse and Recycling; Water-use regulation; integrated
resources management
Table 1: Guidelines and Associated Conservation Measures [a]
Measures Advanced guidelines
Intermediate Guidelines
Basic Guidelines
LEVEL 1 MEASURES
Universal metering Source-water metering Fixed-interval meter Test, calibrate, repair, and
[B] Service-connection reading replace meters
metering and reading Meter-accuracy analysis
Meter public-use water
Water accounting Account for water Analyse nonaccount water Loss-prevention program
and loss control Repair known leaks Water system audit
[A] Leak detection and repair
strategy
Costing and pricing Cost-of-service Cost analysis Advanced pricing methods
[B] accounting Nonpromotional rates
User charges
Metered rates
Information and Understandable water Informative water bill Workshops
education bill Water-bill inserts Advisory committee
[B] Information available School program
Public-education program
LEVEL 2 MEASURES
Water-use audits Audits of large-volume Selective end-use audits
[B] users
Large-landscape audits
Retrofits Retrofit kits available Distribution of retrofit kits
[A] Targeted programs
Pressure System wide pressure Selective use of pressure-
management management reducing valves
[A]
Landscape Promotion of landscape
efficiency efficiency Landscape planning and
45. [P] Selective irrigation sub- renovation
metering Irrigation management
LEVEL 3 MEASURES
Replacements and Rebates and incentives (non-
promotions residential)
[B] Rebates and incentives
(residential)
Promotion of new technologies
Reuse and recycling Industrial applications
[B] Large-volume irrigation
applications
Selective residential applications
Water-use Water-use standards and
regulation regulations
[B] Requirements for new
developments
Integrated resource Supply-side technologies
management Demand-side technologies
[B]
[a] See Appendix A for a description of the measures. Water systems should consider at least the measures listed
under the guidelines applying to them.
[A] Measure affects average-day demand
[P] Measure affects maximum-day (peak) demand)
[B] Measure affects both average and peak demand
Universal Metering [B]
Advanced guidelines
Intermediate Guidelines
Measures Basic Guidelines
Universal metering Source-water Fixed-interval meter Test, calibrate, repair, and
[B] metering reading replace meters
Service-connection Meter-accuracy analysis
metering and reading
Meter public-use
water
Metering is a very fundamental tool of water system management and conservation.
Source-water metering: Both the supplier and the customer benefit from metering.
Source metering is essential for water accounting purposes.
Service connection metering: Service-connection metering is needed to inform
customers about how much water they are using; suppliers use metering data to more
accurately track water usage and bill customers for the usage.
Public-use water metering: All water provided free of charge for public use should be
metered and read at regular intervals. This will allow the utility to more accurately
account for water. Lack of control undermines loss control, costing and pricing, and other
conservation measures.
Fixed-interval water metering: A programme of fixed-interval meter reading is essential
to determine the amount of nonrevenue-producing water. Sources meters and service
46. connection meters should be read at the same relative time in order to facilitate accurate
comparison and analysis.
Meter accuracy: Water meters can be damages and deteriorate with age, thus producing
inaccurate readings.
Water Accounting and Loss control [A]
Advanced guidelines
Intermediate Guidelines
Measures Basic Guidelines
Water Account for water Analyse nonaccount water Loss-prevention program
accounting and Repair known Water system audit
loss control leaks Leak detection and repair strategy
[A]
All water systems may benefit from a water accounting system. The first step in
implementing a water accounting is by developing strategies for loss control.
Account for water: All water systems, even smaller systems, should implement a basic
system of water accounting.
Repair known leaks: The cost of water leakages in terms of operating costs associated
with water supply, treatment, and delivery; water lost produces no revenues for the
utility. Repairing larger leaks can be costly, but it also can produce substantial savings in
water and expenditure over the long run.
Analysis of nonaccount water: Nonaccount water use should be analyzed to identify
potential revenue-producing opportunities, as well as recoverable losses and leaks.
System audit: A system audit can provide information needed to make a more accurate
analysis of nonaccount water.
Leak detection and repair strategy: Systems should also institute a comprehensive leak
detection and repair strategy. Divers can be used to inspect and clean storage tank
interiors.
Loss-prevention programme: This may include pipe inspection, cleaning, lining and
other maintenance efforts to improve the distribution system and prevent leaks and
ruptures from occurring.
Costing and Pricing [B]
Advanced guidelines
Intermediate Guidelines
Measures Basic Guidelines
Costing and Cost-of-service Cost analysis Advanced pricing methods
pricing accounting Nonpromotional rates
47. [B] User charges
Metered rates
Cost-of-service accounting: Water systems should use cost-of-service accounting,
consistent with generally accepted practices
User charges: Once costs are established, systems can develop more accurate user
charges.
Metered rates: Metered rates should be used so that the customer‟s water bill
corresponds to their water usage. The regulator must approve change of rates. It is
important for water systems to communicate with the regulator about the costs and need
for cost-based pricing.
Cost analysis; Systems should conduct a cost analysis to understand what types of usage
drive system costs.
Non-promotional rates: Systems also should consider whether their current rates
structures promote water usage over conservation, nonpromotion rates should be
implemented whenever possible in order to enhance the conservation signal rates.
Systems seeking to encourage conservation through their rates should consider various
issues: the allocation between fixed and variable charges, usage blocks and breakpoints,
minimum bills and whether water is provided in the minimum bill, seasonal pricing
options, and pricing by customer class.
Advanced pricing methods: Advanced pricing methods generally allocate costs by
customer class and/ or type of water use. Advanced pricing might consider seasonal
variation or other methods for pricing indoor and outdoor usage based on differing
contributions to system peaks. Considering the elasticity factors for different classes of
water use can enhance the conservation orientation of the rate structure. Marginal-cost
pricing, which considers the value of water relative to the cost of the next increment of
supply, can be considered as well. Systems also consider special ratemaking provisions
(such as cost-recovery or lost-revenue mechanisms). Potential revenue instability can be
addressed with additional rate structure modifications (such as revenue-adjustment
mechanisms).
Information and Education [B]
Advanced guidelines
Intermediate Guidelines
Measures Basic Guidelines
Information Understandable water Informative water bill Workshops
and bill Water-bill inserts Advisory committee
education Information available School program
Public-education
program
Information and education are critical to the success of any conservation programme.
Information and education measures can directly produce water conservations, as when
48. customers change their water-use habits. These saving can be difficult to estimate. Also
public education may not produce the same amount of sustained water savings as other,
more direct approaches (such as leak repair and retrofits). But education measures also
can enhance the effectiveness of other conservation measures.
Understandable water bill: Customers should be able to read and understand their water
bills. An understandable water bill should identify volume of usage, rates and charges,
and other relevant information.
Information available: Water systems should be prepared provides information
pamphlets to customers on request. Public information and education are important
components of every water conservation plan. Customers are willing to participate in
sound water management practices if provided with accurate information.
Information water bill: Comparison to previous bills and tips on water conservation can
help consumers make informed choices about water use.
Water bill insert: Systems can include inserts in their customers‟ water bills that can
provide information on water use and costs. Insert also can be used to disseminate tips for
home water conservation.
School programme: Systems can provide information on water conservation and
encourage the of water conservation practices through a variety of school programmes.
Contacts through schools can help socialise young people about the value of water
conservation techniques.
Public education programme: Utilities can use a variety of methods to disseminate
information and educate the public on water conservation. Outreach methods include
things such as posters etc.
Workshops: Utilities can hold workshops for industries that might contribute to water
conservation efforts. This might include workshops for plumbers, plumbing fixture
suppliers and builders for landscape and irrigation service providers.
Advisory committee: This may involve the public in the conservation process; potential
committee members include elected officials, local business people, interested citizens,
agency representatives, and representatives of concerned local groups. The committee
can provide feedback to the utility concerning its conservation plan and develop material
and ideas about public information and support for conservation in the community.
Water-Use Audit
Advanced guidelines
Intermediate Guidelines
Measures Basic Guidelines
Water-use Audit of large-volume users Selective end-use audit
audit Large-landscape audits
49. Water-use or end-use audits can provide water systems and their customers with
invaluable information about how water is used and how usage might be reduced through
specific conservation strategies.
Audit of large-volume users: Utilities can facilitate water audits for large-volume users,
both commercial and industrial. Water audits should begin by identifying the categories
of water use for large-volume user. These may include process, sanitary, domestic,
heating, cooling, outdoor, and other water uses. Second, a water audit should identify
areas in which overall water use efficiency can be improved through alternative
technologies or practices.
Large-landscape audits: Water audits can be used for outdoor usage, as well as for
indoor processes. Audits of irrigation practices can provide large-volume commercial,
industrial, and public users with information about usage-reduction techniques. These
audits can be used in conjunction with irrigation sub-metering and other landscaping
efficiency practices.
Selective end-user audit: Water audits can be widened to include selective end-use audits
by customer class, focusing on typical water-use practices within each class. An audit
programme can be selective in terms of targeting customer groups that have particular
needs or for which water conservation could be particularly beneficial. Audits targeted to
older housing, for example, can be particularly beneficial in terms of identifying and
fixing plumbing leaks.
End-use audits also can be tailored to the usage practices within user groups. For
example, residential water audit may focus on plumbing fixtures, lawn and garden water
practices, and customer behaviour. Residential water audits can be used to make
immediate repairs and retrofits.
Worksheet 6 summarizes the components of a residential water audit. All water audits
should include written report to the customer that includes specific ideas for
conservation. Water audits can be planned and implemented in conjunction with electric
power companies or others interested in promoting conservation practices.
Retrofits
Advanced guidelines
Intermediate Guidelines
Measures Basic Guidelines
Retrofits Retrofit kit available Distribution of kits
Targeted programmes
Water systems can promote conservation through a retrofit programme. Retrofitting
involves making an improvement to an existing fixture or appliance (versus replacement)
in order to increase water-use efficiency. Retrofit programmes usually target-plumbing
fixtures.
50. Retrofit kit available: A basic retrofit kit may include low-flow faucet aerators, low-flow
showerheads, leak detection tablets, and replacement flapper valves. Retrofit kite may be
made available free or at a cost.
Calculating the savings from a retrofit programme requires planners to make a number of
assumptions about water use and savings.
Distribution of retrofit kits: Water systems can actively distribute retrofit kits directly or
through community organizations e.g. CBOs, RDCs etc. retrofit kits can be distributed in
conjunction with audit programmes.
Targeted programmes: Utilities might institute target programmes for different
customers classes (residential, commercial, industrial, public buildings and so on).
Retrofits of industrial premises can include facilities used by the public and employees,
as well facilities used for production purposes. A programme to retrofit low-income
housing units may conserve considerable water in older residential housing units with
inefficient plumbing fixtures. Targeted programmes also could be designed in
cooperation with community organizations. An active retrofit programme might be part
of a residential water-use audit programme. It is important that planners ensure that
retrofit programme conform to local plumbing guidelines and ordinances.
Pressure Management
Advanced guidelines
Intermediate Guidelines
Measures Basic Guidelines
Pressure System-wide pressure Selective use of pressure-
management management reducing valves
Reducing excessive pressure in the distribution system can save a significant quantity of
water. Reducing water pressure can decrease leakage, amount of flow through open
tapes/faucets, and stresses on pipes and joints, which may result in leaks. Lower water
pressure may also decrease deteriorations, reducing the need for repairs and extending the
life span of existing facilities. Furthermore, lower pressures can help reduce wear on
end-use fixtures and appliances.
System-wide pressure management: For residential areas, pressure exceeding 80 psi
should be assessed for reduction. Pressure management and reduction strategies must be
consistent with government and local regulations and standards, as well as take into
account system conditions and needs. Obviously, reduction in pressure should not
compromise the integrity of the water system or service quality for customers.
Pressure-reducing valves: A more aggressive plan may include the purchase and
installation of pressure-reducing in individual buildings. Utilities might also insert flow
restrictors on services at the meter. Restrictor can be sized to allow for service length,
system pressure, and site elevation. Utilities can consider providing technical assistance
to customers to address their pressure problems and install pressure-reducing valves to
51. lower customer‟s water pressure. This may be especially beneficial for large-use
customers.
Landscape Efficiency
Advanced guidelines
Intermediate Guidelines
Measures Basic Guidelines
Landscape Promotion of landscape Landscape planning
efficiency efficiency and renovation
Selective irrigation Irrigation
management
Outdoor water usage drives maximum-day demand, which in turn drives requirements for
transmission and treatment facilities. Reducing outdoor usage can thus be very effective
conservation strategy. Outdoor water use can reduce through efficient-oriented
landscaping principles.
Promotion of landscape efficiency: Utilities can promote the development of water
conservation principles into planning, development and management of new landscape
projects such as public parks, building grounds, and golf courses. Utilities can also
promote low water-use landscaping by residential and nonresidential customers,
especially those with large properties. Utilities can cooperate with local nurseries to
ensure the availability of water conserving plants.
Water systems may promote Xeriscaping; an efficiency-oriented approach to landscaping
that encompasses seven essential principles:
Planning and design;
Limited turf areas;
Efficient irrigation;
Soil improvement;
Mulching;
Use of lower water demand plants;
Appropriate maintenance.
Apply irrigation water at critical stages of the plant growth such as flowering etc.
Selective irrigation sub-metering: Selective sub-metering for irrigation water can be
used to improve irrigation management, as well as to introduce irrigation pricing.
Landscape planning and renovation: Existing landscapes can be renovated to
incorporate water conservation practices. Public parks, for example, could be managed to
incorporate water-efficient landscaping and reduce or eliminate irrigation. Utilities can
work with commercial and industrial customers to plan and renovate landscaping in
accordance with water conservation practices.
