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Ecosystems: How do they work?
- 1. Chapter 3 Ecosystems: Connections in Nature
- 6. Communities Subatomic Particles Atoms Molecules Protoplasm Cells Tissues Organs Organ systems Organisms Populations Populations Communities Ecosystems Biosphere Earth Planets Solar systems Galaxies Universe Organisms Realm of ecology Ecosystems Biosphere
- 7. Animation: Levels of Organization PLAY ANIMATION
- 9. Insects 751,000 Other animals 281,000 Fungi 69,000 Prokaryotes 4,800 Plants 248,400 Protists 57,700 Known species 1,412,000
- 16. Lithosphere (crust, top of upper mantle) Rock Soil Vegetation and animals Atmosphere Oceanic Crust Continental Crust Lithosphere Upper mantle Asthenosphere Lower mantle Mantle Core Biosphere Crust Crust (soil and rock) Biosphere (living and dead organisms) Hydrosphere (water) Atmosphere (air)
- 18. Nitrogen cycle Biosphere Heat in the environment Heat Heat Heat Phosphorus cycle Carbon cycle Oxygen cycle Water cycle
- 20. Absorbed by ozone Visible Light Absorbed by the earth Greenhouse effect UV radiation Solar radiation Energy in = Energy out Reflected by atmosphere (34% ) Radiated by atmosphere as heat (66%) Heat radiated by the earth Heat Troposphere Lower Stratosphere (ozone layer)
- 21. Animation: Sun to Earth PLAY ANIMATION
- 23. 100–125 cm (40–50 in.) Coastal mountain ranges Sierra Nevada Mountains Great American Desert Coastal chaparral and scrub Coniferous forest Desert Coniferous forest Prairie grassland Deciduous forest 1,500 m (5,000 ft.) 3,000 m (10,000 ft.) 4,600 m (15,000 ft.) Average annual precipitation Mississippi River Valley Appalachian Mountains Great Plains Rocky Mountains below 25 cm (0–10 in.) 25–50 cm (10–20 in.) 50–75 cm (20–30 in.) 75–100 cm (30–40 in.)
- 25. Sun Oxygen (O 2 ) Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) Secondary consumer (fox) Soil decomposers Primary consumer (rabbit) Precipitation Falling leaves and twigs Producer Producers Soluble mineral nutrients Water
- 26. Animation: Roles of Organisms in an Ecosystem PLAY ANIMATION
- 27. Animation: Diet of a Red Fox PLAY ANIMATION
- 29. Zone of intolerance Optimum range Zone of physiological stress Zone of physiological stress Zone of intolerance Temperature Low High No organisms Few organisms Upper limit of tolerance Population size Abundance of organisms Few organisms No organisms Lower limit of tolerance
- 31. Sugar Maple
- 35. Sun Chloroplast in leaf cell Light-dependent Reaction Light-independent reaction Chlorophyll Energy storage and release (ATP/ADP) Glucose H 2 O Sunlight O 2 CO 2 6CO 2 + 6 H 2 O C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2
- 38. Scavengers Powder broken down by decomposers into plant nutrients in soil Bark beetle engraving Decomposers Long-horned beetle holes Carpenter ant galleries Termite and carpenter ant work Dry rot fungus Wood reduced to powder Mushroom Time progression
- 40. Animation: Linked Processes PLAY ANIMATION
- 43. Abiotic chemicals (carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, minerals) Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat Solar energy Consumers (herbivores, carnivores) Producers (plants) Decomposers (bacteria, fungi)
- 44. Animation: Matter Recycling and Energy Flow PLAY ANIMATION
- 45. BIODIVERSITY
- 51. Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat Detritivores (decomposers and detritus feeders) First Trophic Level Second Trophic Level Third Trophic Level Fourth Trophic Level Solar energy Producers (plants) Primary consumers (herbivores) Secondary consumers (carnivores) Tertiary consumers (top carnivores)
- 52. Animation: Energy Flow PLAY ANIMATION
- 53. Animation: Prairie Trophic Levels PLAY ANIMATION
- 55. Humans Blue whale Sperm whale Crabeater seal Elephant seal Killer whale Leopard seal Adelie penguins Emperor penguin Petrel Fish Squid Carnivorous plankton Krill Herbivorous plankton Phytoplankton
- 56. Animation: Categories of Food Webs PLAY ANIMATION
- 57. Animation: Rainforest Food Web PLAY ANIMATION
- 58. Animation: Prairie Food Web PLAY ANIMATION
- 61. Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat Decomposers Tertiary consumers (human) Producers (phytoplankton) Secondary consumers (perch) Primary consumers (zooplankton) 10 100 1,000 10,000 Usable energy Available at Each tropic level (in kilocalories)
- 62. Animation: Energy Flow in Silver Springs PLAY ANIMATION
- 64. Gross primary productivity (grams of carbon per square meter)
- 66. Photosynthesis Sun Net primary production (energy available to consumers) Growth and reproduction Respiration Energy lost and unavailable to consumers Gross primary production
- 68. Average net primary productivity (kcal/m 2 /yr) Open ocean Continental shelf Lakes and streams Estuaries Aquatic Ecosystems Extreme desert Desert scrub Tundra (arctic and alpine) Temperate grassland Woodland and shrubland Agricultural land Savanna North. coniferous forest Temperate forest Terrestrial Ecosystems Tropical rain forest Swamps and marshes
- 70. Fern Mature soil Honey fungus Root system Oak tree Bacteria Lords and ladies Fungus Actinomycetes Nematode Pseudoscorpion Mite Regolith Young soil Immature soil Bedrock Rock fragments Moss and lichen Organic debris builds up Grasses and small shrubs Mole Dog violet Wood sorrel Earthworm Millipede O horizon Leaf litter A horizon Topsoil B horizon Subsoil C horizon Parent material Springtail Red Earth Mite
- 71. Animation: Soil Profile PLAY ANIMATION
- 73. Soil Profiles of the Principal Terrestrial Soil Types
- 74. Mosaic of closely packed pebbles, boulders Weak humus-mineral mixture Dry, brown to reddish-brown with variable accumulations of clay, calcium and carbonate, and soluble salts Alkaline, dark, and rich in humus Clay, calcium compounds Desert Soil (hot, dry climate) Grassland Soil semiarid climate)
- 75. Tropical Rain Forest Soil (humid, tropical climate) Acidic light-colored humus Iron and aluminum compounds mixed with clay
- 76. Deciduous Forest Soil (humid, mild climate) Forest litter leaf mold Humus-mineral mixture Light, grayish-brown, silt loam Dark brown firm clay
- 77. Coniferous Forest Soil (humid, cold climate) Light-colored and acidic Acid litter and humus Humus and iron and aluminum compounds
- 79. 0.05–2 mm diameter High permeability Low permeability Water Water Clay less than 0.002 mm Diameter Silt 0.002–0.05 mm diameter Sand
- 81. The Water Cycle
- 82. Precipitation Precipitation Transpiration Condensation Evaporation Ocean storage Transpiration from plants Precipitation to land Groundwater movement (slow) Evaporation from land Evaporation from ocean Precipitation to ocean Infiltration and Percolation Rain clouds Runoff Surface runoff (rapid) Surface runoff (rapid)
- 83. Animation: Hydrologic Cycle PLAY ANIMATION
- 86. The Carbon Cycle: Part of Nature ’s Thermostat
- 88. Animation: Carbon Cycle PLAY ANIMATION
- 90. CO 2 emissions from fossil fuels (billion metric tons of carbon equivalent) Year Low projection High projection
- 91. The Nitrogen Cycle: Bacteria in Action
- 92. Gaseous nitrogen (N 2 ) in atmosphere Ammonia, ammonium in soil Nitrogen-rich wastes, remains in soil Nitrate in soil Loss by leaching Loss by leaching Nitrite in soil Nitrification Nitrification Ammonification Uptake by autotrophs Uptake by autotrophs Excretion, death, decomposition Loss by denitrification Food webs on land Fertilizers Nitrogen fixation
- 93. Animation: Nitrogen Cycle PLAY ANIMATION
- 96. Nitrogen fixation by natural processes Global nitrogen (N) fixation (trillion grams) Nitrogen fixation by human processes Year
- 98. Dissolved in Ocean Water Marine Sediments Rocks uplifting over geologic time settling out weathering sedimentation Land Food Webs Dissolved in Soil Water, Lakes, Rivers death, decomposition uptake by autotrophs agriculture leaching, runoff uptake by autotrophs excretion death, decomposition mining Fertilizer weathering Guano Marine Food Webs
- 99. Animation: Phosphorous Cycle PLAY ANIMATION
- 101. The Sulfur Cycle
- 102. Hydrogen sulfide Sulfur Sulfate salts Decaying matter Animals Plants Ocean Industries Volcano Hydrogen sulfide Oxygen Dimethyl sulfide Ammonium sulfate Ammonia Acidic fog and precipitation Sulfuric acid Water Sulfur trioxide Sulfur dioxide Metallic sulfide deposits
- 103. Animation: Sulfur Cycle PLAY ANIMATION
- 108. Critical nesting site locations USDA Forest Service USDA Forest Service Private owner 1 Private owner 2 Topography Habitat type Lake Wetland Forest Grassland Real world
- 110. Systems Measurement Define objectives Identify and inventory variables Obtain baseline data on variables Make statistical analysis of relationships among variables Determine significant interactions Objectives Construct mathematical model describing interactions among variables Run the model on a computer, with values entered for different Variables Evaluate best ways to achieve objectives Data Analysis System Modeling System Simulation System Optimization
Notes de l'éditeur
- Figure 3.2 Natural capital: levels of organization of matter in nature. Ecology focuses on five of these levels.
- Figure 3.3 Natural capital: breakdown of the earth ’ s 1.4 million known species. Scientists estimate that there are 4 million to 100 million species.
- Figure 3.6 Natural capital: general structure of the earth.
- Figure 3.7 Natural capital: life on the earth depends on the flow of energy (wavy arrows) from the sun through the biosphere and back into space, the cycling of crucial elements (solid arrows around ovals), and gravity , which keeps atmospheric gases from escaping into space and helps recycle nutrients through air, water, soil, and organisms. This simplified model depicts only a few of the many cycling elements.
- Figure 3.8 Solar capital: flow of energy to and from the earth.
- Figure 3.9 Natural capital: major biomes found along the 39th parallel across the United States. The differences reflect changes in climate, mainly differences in average annual precipitation and temperature.
- Figure 3.10 Natural capital: major components of an ecosystem in a field.
- Figure 3.11 Natural capital: range of tolerance for a population of organisms, such as fish, to an abiotic environmental factor—in this case, temperature. These restrictions keep particular species from taking over an ecosystem by keeping their population size in check.
- Figure 3.12 The physical conditions of the environment can limit the distribution of a species. The green area shows the current range of sugar maple trees in eastern North America. (Data from U.S. Department of Agriculture)
- Figure 3 .A Simplified overview of photosynthesis. In this process, chlorophyll molecules in the chloroplasts of plant cells absorb solar energy. This initiates a complex series of chemical reactions in which carbon dioxide and water are converted to sugars, such as glucose, and oxygen.
- Figure 3.13 Natural capital: various scavengers (detritivores) and decomposers (mostly fungi and bacteria) can “ feed on ” or digest parts of a log and eventually convert its complex organic chemicals into simpler inorganic nutrients that can be taken up by producers.
- Figure 3.14 Natural capital: the main structural components of an ecosystem (energy, chemicals, and organisms). Matter recycling and the flow of energy—first from the sun, then through organisms, and finally into the environment as low-quality heat—links these components.
- Figure 3.16 Solutions: goals, strategies, and tactics for protecting biodiversity.
- Figure 3.17 Natural capital: a food chain. The arrows show how chemical energy in food flows through various trophic levels in energy transfers; most of the energy is degraded to heat, in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics.
- Figure 3.18 Natural capital: a greatly simplified food web in the Antarctic. Many more participants in the web, including an array of decomposer organisms, are not depicted here.
- Figure 3.19 Natural capital: generalized pyramid of energy flow showing the decrease in usable energy available at each succeeding trophic level in a food chain or web. In nature, ecological efficiency varies from 2% to 40%, with 10% efficiency being common. This model assumes a 10% ecological efficiency (90% loss in usable energy to the environment, in the form of low-quality heat) with each transfer from one trophic level to another. QUESTION: Why is it a scientific error to call this a pyramid of energy?
- Figure 3.20 Natural capital: gross primary productivity across the continental United States based on remote satellite data. The differences roughly correlate with variations in moisture and soil types. (NASA ’ s Earth Observatory)
- Figure 3.21 Natural capital: distinction between gross primary productivity and net primary productivity. A plant uses some of its gross primary productivity to survive through respiration. The remaining energy is available to consumers.
- Figure 3.22 Natural capital: estimated annual average net primary productivity per unit of area in major life zones and ecosystems, expressed as kilocalories of energy produced per square meter per year (kcal/m 2 /yr). QUESTION: What are nature ’ s three most productive and three least productive systems? (Data from Communities and Ecosystems, 2nd ed., by R. H. Whittaker, 1975. New York: Macmillan)
- Figure 3.23 Natural capital: soil formation and generalized soil profile. Horizons, or layers, vary in number, composition, and thickness, depending on the type of soil. (Used by permission of Macmillan Publishing Company from Derek Elsom, Earth, New York: Macmillan, 1992. Copyright © 1992 by Marshall Editions Developments Limited)
- Figure 3.24 Natural capital: soil profiles of the principal soil types typically found in five types of terrestrial ecosystems.
- Figure 3.24 Natural capital: soil profiles of the principal soil types typically found in five types of terrestrial ecosystems.
- Figure 3.24 Natural capital: soil profiles of the principal soil types typically found in five types of terrestrial ecosystems.
- Figure 3.24 Natural capital: soil profiles of the principal soil types typically found in five types of terrestrial ecosystems.
- Figure 3.25 Natural capital: the size, shape, and degree of clumping of soil particles determine the number and volume of spaces for air and water within a soil. Soils with more pore spaces (left) contain more air and are more permeable to water than soils with fewer pores (right).
- Figure 3.26 Natural capital: simplified model of the hydrologic cycle.
- Figure 3.27 Natural capital: simplified model of the global carbon cycle. Carbon moves through both marine ecosystems (left side) and terrestrial ecosystems (right side). Carbon reservoirs are shown as boxes; processes that change one form of carbon to another are shown in unboxed print. QUESTION: What are three ways in which your lifestyle directly or indirectly affects the carbon cycle? (From Cecie Starr, Biology: Concepts and Applications, 4th ed., Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole, © 2000)
- Figure 3.28 Natural capital degradation: human interference in the global carbon cycle from carbon dioxide emissions when fossil fuels are burned and forests are cleared, 1850 to 2006 and projections to 2030 (dashed lines). (Data from UN Environment Programme, British Petroleum, International Energy Agency, and U.S. Department of Energy)
- Figure 3.29 Natural capital: simplified model of the nitrogen cycle in a terrestrial ecosystem. Nitrogen reservoirs are shown as boxes; processes changing one form of nitrogen to another are shown in unboxed print. QUESTION: What are three ways in which your lifestyle directly or indirectly affects the nitrogen cycle? (Adapted from Cecie Starr, Biology: Today and Tomorrow, Brooks/Cole © 2005)
- Figure 3.30 Natural capital degradation: human interference in the global nitrogen cycle. Human activities such as production of fertilizers now fix more nitrogen than all natural sources combined. (Data from UN Environment Programme, UN Food and Agriculture Organization, and U.S. Department of Agriculture)
- Figure 3.31 Natural capital: simplified model of the phosphorus cycle. Phosphorus reservoirs are shown as boxes; processes that change one form of phosphorus to another are shown in unboxed print. QUESTION: What are three ways in which your lifestyle directly or indirectly affects the phosphorus cycle? (From Cecie Starr and Ralph Taggart, Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, 9th ed., Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth © 2001)
- Figure 3.32 Natural capital: simplified model of the sulfur cycle. The movement of sulfur compounds in living organisms is shown in green, blue in aquatic systems, and orange in the atmosphere. QUESTION: What are three ways in which your lifestyle directly or indirectly affects the sulfur cycle?
- Figure 3.33 Geographic information systems (GISs) provide the computer technology for organizing, storing, and analyzing complex data collected over broad geographic areas. They enable scientists to overlay many layers of data (such as soils, topography, distribution of endangered populations, and land protection status).
- Figure 3.34 Major stages of systems analysis. (Modified data from Charles Southwick)