Construction material ferrous metal & alloy

Construction Material
FERROUS METAL & ALLOY
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Steel :
Historic Overview
 round 800 B.C.
the general use of iron
 16th-19th century
wrought iron / cast iron
 round 1870 A.D.
the first production of
modern steel
 late 19th century
multi-storey iron structure
buildings
 early 20th century
the use of tower and
mobile cranes in
construction

Metal & Alloys
 Classifications
 Ferrous – Iron as
base metal
 Nonferrous – No
iron in
composition
 ALLOY definitions
 Combination of two
or more elements
 Combination of two
or more metallic
elements

Metals
 Ferrous Metals
 Cast irons
 Steels
 Super alloys
 Iron-based
 Nickel-based
 Cobalt-based
 Non-ferrous metals
 Aluminum and its alloys
 Copper and its alloys
 Magnesium and its alloys
 Nickel and its alloys
 Titanium and its alloys
 Zinc and its alloys
 Lead & Tin
 Refractory metals
 Precious metals

Alloys In Metals
 Compounds
 Chemically bonded
 Distinct from its constituents
 Mixtures
 Not chemically bonded
 Retains individual identity of
ingredients
 Solutions
 Liquid
 Solid

Properties of metal & alloy
Mechanical properties of materials
Strength, Toughness, Hardness, Ductility,
Elasticity, Fatigue and Creep
Chemical properties
Oxidation, Corrosion, Flammability, Toxicity, …
Physical properties
Density, Specific heat, Melting and boiling point,
Thermal expansion and conductivity,
Electrical and magnetic properties

Properties Of Metals
Strength - The ability of a material to
stand up to forces being applied
without it bending, breaking,
shattering or deforming in any
way.
Elasticity - The ability of a material to
absorb force and flex in different
directions, returning to its
original position.
Plasticity - The ability of a material to
be change in shape permanently.

Mechanical Properties
Of Metals
Ductility - The ability of a material to
change shape (deform) usually
by stretching along its length.
Tensile Strength – The ability of a
material to stretch without
breaking or snapping.
Malleability - The ability of a
material to be reshaped in all
directions without cracking.

Toughness - A characteristic of
a material that does not
break or shatter when
receiving a blow or under a
sudden shock.
Conductivity - The ability of a
material to conduct
electricity.
Hardness – The ability of a
material to resist
scratching, wear and tear &
indentation.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF METALS

OF METALS
Fatigue
Fatigue failures occur when metal is subjected
to a repetitive or fluctuating stress and will fail
at a stress much lower than its tensile strength.
• Fatigue failures occur without any plastic
deformation (no warning).
• Fatigue surface appears as a smooth
region, showing beach mark or origin of
fatigue crack

OF METALS
Fusibility
Fusibility is defined as the ability of
a metal to become liquid by the
application of heat. Metals
are fused in welding. Steels fuse at
approximately 2,500°F, and
aluminum alloys at approximately
1,110°F.

OF METALS
Creep
The mechanical strength of
metals decreases with increasing
temperature and the properties
become much more time
dependent.
Metals subjected to a constant
load at elevated temperatures will
undergo 'creep', a time dependent
increase in length.
Creep in metals is defined as time dependent plastic deformation at
constant stress (or load) and temperature. The form of a typical creep
curve of strain versus time is shown in Figure

Strength
 Strength is the property that enables a metal to to resist
deformation under load The ultimate strength is the
maximum strain a material can withstand.
 Tensile strength is a measurement of the resistance to
being pulled apart when placed in a tension load.
 Fatigue strength is the ability of material to resist various
kinds of rapidly changing stresseS and is ex-pressed by
the magnitude of alternating stress for a specified
number of cycles.
 Impact strength is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly
applied loads and is measured in foot-pounds of force.

Hardness
 Hardness is the property of a
material to resist permanent
indenation. Because there are
several meth-ods of measuring
hardness, the hardness of a
material is always specified in
terms of the particular test that
was used to measure this
property. Rockwell, Yickers, or
Brinell are some of the methods
of testing. Of these tests,
Rockwell is the one most
frequently used.

Toughness
 Toughness is the property that enables a material to
withstand shock and to be deformed without
rupturing .
 Toughness may be considered as a combination of.
strength and plasticity.
 It is metal ability to absorb energy before fracture.
Recall that ductility is a measure of how much
something deforms plastically before fracture, but just
because a material is ductile does not make it tough.

Toughness
 The ability of a metal to deform plastically and to
absorb energy in the process before fracture is
termed toughness.
 The key to toughness is a good combination of
strength and ductility. A material with high strength
and high ductility will have more toughness than a
material with low strength and high ductility.
Therefore, one way to measure toughness is by
calculating the area under the stress strain curve
from a tensile test. This value is simply called
“material toughness” and it has units of energy per
volume. Material toughness equates to a slow
absorption of energy by the material.

Elasticity
 When a material has a load
applied to it, the load
causes the material to
deform. Elasticity is the
ability of a material to
return to its original shape
after the load is removed.
Theoretically, the elastic
limit of a material is the limit
to which a material can be
loaded and still recover its
original shape after the load
is removed.

Plasticity
 Plasticity is the ability of a material to deform
permanently without breaking or rupturing.
 This property is the opposite of strength. By
careful alloying of metals, the combination of
plasticity and strength is used to manufacture
large structural members. For example,
should a member of a bridge structure
become over-loaded, plasticity allows the
overloaded member to flow allowing the
distribution of the load to other parts of the
bridge structure.

Brittleness
 Brittleness is the opposite of the property of
plastic-ity.
 A brittle metal is one that breaks or shatters
before it deforms. White cast iron and glass
are good examples of brittle material.
 Generally, brittle metals are high in
compressive strength but low in tensile
strength. As an example, you would not
choose cast iron for fabricating support
beams in a bridge.

Ductility and Malleability
 Ductility is the property that
enables a material to stretch,
bend or twist without cracking or
breaking. This property makes it
possible for a material to be
drawn out into a thin wire. In
comparison, malleability is the
property that enables a material
to deform by compressive forces
without developing defects. A
malleable material is one that can
be stamped, hammered, forged,
pressed, or rolled into thin
sheets.

Corrosion Resistance
 Corrosion resistance, although not a mechanical property, is
important in the discussion of metals.
 Corrosion resistance is the property of a metal that gives it the
ability to withstand attacks from atmospheric, chemical, or
electrochemical conditions. Corrosion, sometimes called
oxidation, is illustrated by the rusting of iron.
 Table 12 lists four mechanical properties and the corrosion
resistance of various metals or alloys. The first metal or alloy in
each column exhibits the best characteristics of that property.
The last metal or alloy in each column exhibits the least. In the
column labelled "Toughness," note that iron is not as tough as
copper or nickel; however, it is tougher than magnesium, zinc,
and aluminium. In the column labelled "Ductility," iron exhibits a
reasonable amount of ductility; however, in the columns labelled
"Malleability" and "Brittleness," it is last.

Metal Types
 The metals that Builders work with are divided
into two general classifications:
 Ferrous and nonferrous.
 Ferrous metals are those composed primarily of
iron and iron alloys.
 Nonferrous metals are those composed
primarily of some element or elements other
than iron.
 Nonferrous metals or alloys sometimes contain
a small amount of iron as an alloying element or
as an impurity.

Ferrous Metals
 The word is derived from the Latin word
ferrum "iron").
 Ferrous metals include all forms of iron and
steel alloys. A few examples include wrought
iron, cast iron, carbon steels, alloy steels, and
tool steels. Ferrous metals are ironbase
alloys with small percentages of carbon and
other elements added to achieve desirable
properties. Normally, ferrous metals are
magnetic and nonferrous metals are
nonmagnetic.

Iron
 Pure iron rarely exists outside of the laboratory. Iron
is produced by reducing iron ore to pig iron through
the use of a blast furnace. From pig iron many other
types of iron and steel are produced by the addition
or deletion of carbon and alloys.
Iron
Ore
Pig Iron Wrought Iron
Puddling
Process
Steel
Bessemer Process
Acid Open Hearth Process
Basic Open Hearth Process
Blast
Furnance

Iron Ores
 Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which
metallic iron can be economically extracted.
 The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in
color from dark grey, bright yellow, deep purple, to
rusty red.
 The iron itself is usually found in the form of
magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), goethite
(FeO(OH)), limonite (FeO(OH).n(H2O)) or siderite
(FeCO3).
 Hematite is also known as "natural ore", a name
which refers to the early years of mining, when
certain hematite ores containing up to 66% iron
could be fed directly into ironmaking blast furnaces.
 Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron,
which is one of the main raw materials to make
steel.
 98% of the mined iron ore is used to make steel.
Indeed, it has been argued that iron ore is "more
integral to the global economy than any other
commodity, except perhaps oil.

IRON ORES
ORE APPEARANCE COMPOSITION % OF IRON
MAGNETITE STEEL GREY OR BLACK Fe3O4 72-62
HEMATITE
(a) RED HEMATITE EARTHY OR ROCK ,RED Fe2O3 70-60
(b) BROWN HEMATITE BROWN EARTHY 2 Fe2O33H2O 60-
42
SIDERITE OR SPATHIC CRYSTALLINE GREY FeCO3 48-35
IRON STONE GREY TO LIGHT BROWN FeCO3 42-30
EARTHLY OR STONEY
IRON ORES

HEMATITE:
(BROWN)
IRON ORES
MAGNETITE:
HEMATITE:(RED)

Pig Iron
 Pig iron is composed of about
93% iron, from 3% to 5% carbon,
and various amounts of other
elements. Pig iron is
comparatively weak and brittle;
therefore, it has a limited use
and approximately 90%
produced is refined to produce
steel. Castiron pipe and some
fittings and valves are manu
factured from pig iron.

Wrought Iron
 Contains 0.15% carbon
 wrought iron to resist
corrosion and oxidation.
 The chemical analyses of
wrought iron and mild steel are
just about the same. The
difference comes from the
properties controlled during the
manufacturing process.
 Wrought iron can be gas and
arc welded, machined, plated,
and easily formed; however, it
has a low hardness and a low
fatigue strength.

Wrought Iron Gate
WROUGHT IRON
• It can be molded easily
and has good resistance to
corrosion.
• Wrought iron is used
extensively where
corrosion resistance is
needed.

Wrought Iron Fence
WROUGHT IRON
•It’s ductility is lower than
steel.
• It’s tensile strength is lower.

Wrought Iron Rack
WROUGHT IRON

Cast Iron
 Cast iron is any iron containing
greater than 2% carbon alloy.
 Manufactured by reheating pig iron
(in a cupola) and blending it with
other material of known
composition.
 Alternate layers of pig iron (with or
without scrap steel) and coke are
charged into furnace.
 Limestone is added to flux the ash
from the coke.
 Heat necessary for the smelting is
supplied by the
combustion of coke and air
supplied by the blast.

Cast Iron Teapot
Cast Iron Pots
CAST IRON
•Cupola function to purify iron and
produce a more uniform product.
•When sufficient metal is
accumulated at the bottom of the
furnace, it is tapped.

Cast Iron Bench
CAST IRON
•Cast iron has a high-
compressive strength and
good wear resistance;
however, it lacks ductility,
malleability, and impact
strength. Alloy-ing it with
nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, silicon, or
vanadium improves
toughness, tensile strength,
and hardness. A malleable
cast iron is produced
through a prolonged
annealing process.

Ingot Iron
 Ingot iron is a commercially pure iron
(99.85% iron) that is easily formed
and possesses good ductility and
corrosion resistance. The chemical
analysis 'and properties of this iron
and the lowest carbon steel are
practically the same. The lowest
carbon steel, known as deadsoft,
has about 0.06% more carbon than
ingot iron. In iron the carbon content
is considered an impurity and in steel
it is considered an alloying element.
The primary use for ingot iron is for
galvanized and enameled sheet.

Steel
 Contains up to 1.5% of Carbon
(Specific Gravity 7.7)
 Of all the different metals and
materials that we use in our trade,
steel is by far the most important.
When steel was developed, it
revolutionized the American iron
industry. With it came skyscrapers,
stronger and longer bridges, and
railroad tracks that did not collapse.
Steel is manufactured from pig iron
by decreasing the amount of carbon
and other impurities and adding
specific amounts of alloying
elements.

 Do not confuse steel with the two general classes of iron: cast iron
(greater than 2% carbon) and pure iron (less than 0.15% carbon). In
steel manufacturing, controlled amounts of alloying elements are
added during the molten stage to produce the desired composition.
 Carbon in excess of 1.5% does not combine with iron , but will be
present as free graphite , Thus the dividing line of cast iron
and steel is presence of free graphite . If there is free graphite
then it is cast iron, otherwise it is steel.
 Steel and wrought iron can be distinguished by putting a drop of
nitric acid on metal , steel will produce a gray stain due to higher
carbon content.
STEEL

Carbon Steel
 Carbon steel is a term applied to a broad range of
steel that falls between the commercially pure ingot
iron and the cast irons. This range of carbon steel
may be classified into four groups:
 Low-Carbon Steel 0.05% to 0.30% carbon
 Medium-Carbon Steel 0.30% to 0.45% carbon
 High-Carbon Steel 0.45% to 0.75% carbon
 Very High-Carbon Steel 0.75% to 1.70% carbon

Low-carbon Steel
 Steel in this
classification is
tough and ductile,
easily machined,
formed, and welded.
It does not respond
to any form of heat
treating, except
case hardening.

Medium-carbon Steel
 These steels are strong and
hard but cannot be welded
or worked as
 easily as the low-carbon
steels. They are used for
crane
 hooks, axles, shafts,
setscrews, and so on.

High-carbon Steel
 Steel in these classes respond well
to heat treatment and can be
welded. When welding, spe-cial
electrodes must be used along
with preheating and stress-
relieving procedures to prevent
cracks in the weld areas. These
steels are used for dies, cutting
tools, mill tools, railroad car
wheels, chisels, knives, and so
on.

Stainless Steel
 This type of steel is classified by the American Iron and Steel
Institute (AISI) into two general series named the 200-300
series and 400 series. Each series includes several types of
steel with different characteristics.
 The 200-300 series of stainless steel is known as AUSTENITIC.
This type of steel is very tough and ductile in the welded
condition; therefore, it is ideal for welding and requires no
annealing under normal atmospheric conditions. The most well-
known types of steel in this series are the 302 and 304. They
are commonly called 18-8 because they are composed of
18% chromium and 8% nickel. The chromium nickel steels are
the most widely used and are normally nonmagnetic.

Alloy Steels
 Steels that derive their properties primarily from the presence of
some alloying element other than carbon are called ALLOY
STEELS.
 One or more of these elements may be added to the steel
during the manufacturing process to produce the desired
characteristics. Alloy steels may be produced in structural
sections, sheets, plates, and bars for use in the "as-rolled"
condition.
1.Nickel Steel
2.Chromium Steel
3.Chrome Vanadium Steel
4.Tungsten Steel
5.Manganese Steel

Nickel Steels
 These steels contain from
3.5% nickel to 5% nickel.
The nickel increases the
strength and toughness of
these steels. Nickel steel'
containing more than 5%
nickel has an increased
resistance to corrosion and
scale. Nickel steel is used in
the manufac-ture of aircraft
parts, such as propellers
and airframe support
members.

Chromium Steels
 These steels have chromium added to
improve hardening ability, wear resistance,
and strength. These steels contain between
0.20% to 0.75% chromium and 0.45% carbon
or more. Some of these steels are so highly
resistant to wear that they are used for the
races and balls in antifriction bearings.
Chro-mium steels are highly resistant to
corrosion and to scale.

Chrome Vanadium Steel
 This steel has the maximum
amount of strength with the
least amount of weight. Steels
of this type contain from
0.15% to 0.25% . vanadium,
0.6% to 1.5% chromium, and
0.1 % to 0.6% carbon.
Common uses are for
crankshafts, gears, axles, and
other items that require high
strength. This steel is also
used in the manufacture of
high-quality hand tools, such
as wrenches and sockets.

Tungsten Steel
 This is a special alloy that
has the property of red
hardness. This is the ability
to continue to cut after it
becomes red-hot.
 Because this alloy is
expensive to produce, its use
is largely restricted to the
manufacture of drills, lathe
tools, milling cutters, and
similar cutting tools.
Cutting Wheel

Manganese Steels
 The amount of manganese used
depends upon the properties
desired in the finished product.
Small amounts of manganese
produce strong, free-machining
steels. Larger amounts (between
2% and 10%) produce
somewhat brittle steel, while still
larger amounts (11% to 14%)
produce a steel that is tough and
very resistant to wear after
proper heat treat-ment. Railroad
tracks, for example, are made
with steel that contains
manganese

Iron And Steel Manufacturing Process

IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURING
PROCESS

MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
BESSEMER PROCESS
OPEN HEARTH PROCESS :
(SIEMENS MARTIN PROCESS)
L. D. PROCESS :
( LINZ – DONAWITZ PROCESS)

Manufacture Of Steel :
Bessemer Process
The Bessemer process was
the first inexpensive industrial
process for the mass-
production of steel from
molten pig iron. The process is
named after its inventor, Henry
Bessemer, who took out a
patent on the process in 1855.
The key principle is removal of
impurities from the iron by
oxidation with air being blown
through the molten iron. The
oxidation also raises the
temperature of the iron mass
and keeps it molten.

MANUFACTURE OF STEEL :
BESSEMER PROCESS

Manufacture Of Steel
Open Hearth Process

Manufacture Of Steel
L D Process (Basic Oxygen Process)
In the basic oxygen process, steel is also refined in a pear-shaped furnace that
tilts sideways for charging and pouring. Air, however, has been replaced by a
high-pressure stream of nearly pure oxygen. After the furnace has been charged
and turned upright, an oxygen lance is lowered into it. The water-cooled tip of the
lance is usually about 2 m (about 6 ft) above the charge although this distance
can be varied according to requirements. Thousands of cubic meters of oxygen
are blown into the furnace at supersonic speed. The oxygen combines with
carbon and other unwanted elements and starts a high-temperature churning
reaction that rapidly burns out impurities from the pig iron and converts it into
steel.

Production Of Steel

PRODUCTION OF STEEL

Production Of TMT Bars
Tempcore: TMT BARS are removed from cooling zone. A temprature
gradient is established in the cross section. It causes heat to flow from centre
to surface. The martensite left at centre is tempered by heat flow. So it is
known as tempcore. After the intensive cooling, the tmt bar is exposed to air
and the core reheats the quenched surface layer by conduction, therefore
tempering the external martensite. helps them attain a higher yield strength.
surface
core

PRODUCTION OF TMT BARS

Stainless steels
• Characterized by their corrosion resistance, high strength and
ductility, and high chromium content.
• Stainless as a film of chromium oxide protects the metal from
corrosion.

Stainless steels
• Five types of stainless steels:
1. Austenitic steels
2. Ferritic steels
3. Martensitic steels
4. Precipitation-hardening (PH) steels
5. Duplex-structure steels

Basic Types of Tool and Die
Steels
TABLE5.5
Type AISI
Highspeed
Hotwork
Coldwork
Shockresisting
Moldsteels
Specialpurpose
Waterhardening
M(molybdenumbase)
T(tungstenbase)
H1toH19(chromiumbase)
H20toH39(tungstenbase)
H40toH59(molybdenumbase)
D(highcarbon,highchromium)
A(mediumalloy,airhardening)
O(oilhardening)
S
P1toP19(lowcarbon)
P20toP39(others)
L(lowalloy)
F(carbon-tungsten)
W

Processing and Service
Characteristics of Common Tool
and Die Steels
TABLE 5.6 Processing and Service Characteristics of Common Tool and Die Steels
AISI
designation
Resistance to
decarburization
Resistance to
cracking
Approximate
hardness
(HRC) Machinability Toughness
Resistance to
softening
Resistance to
wear
M2 Medium Medium 60–65 Medium Low Very high Very high
T1 High High 60–65 Medium Low Very high Very high
T5 Low Medium 60–65 Medium Low Highest Very high
H11, 12, 13 Medium Highest 38–55 Medium to high Very high High Medium
A2 Medium Highest 57–62 Medium Medium High High
A9 Medium Highest 35–56 Medium High High Medium to
high
D2 Medium Highest 54–61 Low Low High High to very
high
D3 Medium High 54–61 Low Low High Very high
H21 Medium High 36–54 Medium High High Medium to
high
H26 Medium High 43–58 Medium Medium Very high High
P20 High High 28–37 Medium to high High Low Low to
medium
P21 High Highest 30–40 Medium Medium Medium Medium
W1, W2 Highest Medium 50–64 Highest High Low Low to
medium
Source: Adapted from Tool Steels, American Iron and Steel Institute, 1978.

Metal Identification
 Steel Numbering Systems
 SAE – society of automotive engineers
 AISI – American iron and steel institute

 C = carbon
 Cr = chromium
 Mn = Manganese
 Mo =
Molybdenum
 Ni = Nickel
 Si = Silicon
 V = Vanadium

 First number indicates type of steel
 Second number approx. % of dominate
element
 Third and fourth digit denotes % of carbon in
hundredths
 1018 = Carbon steel with .18% of carbon
content

IS CODE :
STRUCTURAL STEEL
IS : 226-1975 Structural steel (standard quality) (fifth revision)
1s : 961-1975 Structural steel (high tensile) (second revision)
IS : 1977-1975 Structural steel (ordinary quality) (second revision)
IS : 2062-1980 Structural steel (fusion welding quality) (second revision)
IS : 8500-1977 Weldable structural steel (medium and high strength qualities)
SHEET AND STRIP
IS : 277-1977 Galvanized steel sheets (plain and corrugated) (third revision)
IS : 412-1975
Expanded metal steel sheets for general purposes (second
revision)
IS : 1079-1973 Hot rolled carbon steel sheet and strip (third revision)
IS : 4030-1973
Cold rolled carbon steel strip for general engineering purposes (first
revision)
IS : 7226-1974
Cold-rolled medium, high carbon and low alloy steel strip for
general engineering purposes
TUBES AND TUBULARS
IS : 1161-1979 Steel tubes for structural purposes (third revision)
IS : 1239 Mild steel tubes, tubulars and other wrought steel fittings:
IS : 1239 (Part I)-
1979 Part I Mild steel tubes (fourth revision)
IS : 1239 (Part II)-
1982
Part II Mild steel tubulars and other wrought steel pipe fittings (third
revision)
IS : 4270-1967 Steel tubes used for water wells
IS : 4516-1968 Elliptical mild steel tubes
IS : 4923-1968 Hollow steel sections for structural use

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