2. Lecture AimsLecture Aims
Review key research methods brought to
qualitative research by ethnographic
designs
Outline the role of the qualitative researcher
Introduce and look at methods of:
– Observation
– Interviews
– Fieldnotes
– Reflective Journaling
4. Why Observe?Why Observe?
To develop a theory
To prove/disprove a theory
Making use of an “opportunity” (Wolcott,
1995)
Provide a thick description to analyse
Provide an instrument of triangulation
(alongside interviewing and fieldnotes)
5. What to observeWhat to observe
Interactions
– Between people
– Between people and settings
– Between people and yourself
Behaviours
– Reactions
– Routines
– Interactions
The Context/Setting
The overt and the covert
6. How?How?
Traditional
– Eyes, pen, and paper
Technological
– Cameras/Video/ICT
Combination
– Trad+Post
– Even the post involves
a level of the traditional
7. To what degree/levelTo what degree/level
Four phases of observation
1. Scoping
2. Descriptive
3. Focused
4. Selective
Each involves a different
focus/depth
8. Phase One: ScopingPhase One: Scoping
Familisation with the setting
– Setting mapping
– Apparent rules/structures
– General impressions
– Your own reactions
– Any thoughts/hypotheses
A reflexive tool
Jottings and diagrams
9. Phase Two: DescriptivePhase Two: Descriptive
Detailed descriptions of settings,
interactions, and behaviours
Focuses on questions that can be addressed
through observation
- the inquisitive eye
Uses delimiters and descriptors for current
details and future reference
10. Phase Two: DescriptivePhase Two: Descriptive
Includes
– Setting description
– Recorded descriptions of events, interactions,
and individuals
– Time intervals
Points of reference
Points of description
– Researcher Reflection
11.
12. Phase Three: FocusedPhase Three: Focused
ObservationObservation
Descriptive observation focusing on
specific descriptive questions:
– Space
– Objects
– Time
– Behaviours
– Individuals
20. Phase Four: SelectivePhase Four: Selective
ObservationObservation
The focusing down of ‘focus observations’
Looks at filling in the gaps
Providing other dimensions to focused
observations and the phenomenon in question
Focuses on the specifics
– Individual
– Event
– Behaviour
– Context
21. Observation and TechnologyObservation and Technology
What are the strengths of involving
technology as an observation tool?
What ‘new’ dilemmas arise from using
technology as an observation tool?
Do paper and pen still have a role to play
alongside technology?
What is this role?
23. Research InterviewingResearch Interviewing
Unstructured
– Conversation
– Central to ethnography
Semi-structured
– Broad open questions with prompting
– Fits within most qualitative paradigms
Structured
– Tight questions with limited or already given responses
– Quantitative/positivist research
– Mixed paradigm research
– Technology-based methodologies (phone interviewing,
ICT research)
24. Unstructured InterviewingUnstructured Interviewing
Conversations in the field
Ideally recorded on tape or after the
research
Requires the researcher to be skilled:
– In holding conversations
– In listening
– In focusing/re-focusing conversations
Requires time
25. Semi-Structured InterviewingSemi-Structured Interviewing
Guided conversations
Uses broad opening questions which can be
redirected by interviewee or interviewer
Uses verbal prompting
Allows for the development of
conversation/research skills
Generally piloted beforehand
Recorded on tape and on paper
26. Structured InterviewingStructured Interviewing
Focused conversations
Uses tight questions which require set
responses (sometimes given)
Reflects survey research
Allows for collection of theme-driven data
Requires piloting with similar sample
Recorded on Paper
27. Interviewing and ParadigmsInterviewing and Paradigms
Different interviews suit different paradigms of
research
– Where do you think??
Structured is used most
Unstructured is used most
Semi-structured is used most
Unless theory building most qualitative research
uses semi-structured interviews
Mixed design uses a mixture of structured and
semi-structured questions
28. What leads to a goodWhat leads to a good
interviewinterview
Rapport
– Before the interview
– The first question/opening comments
Reciprocity
– You shouldn’t be the only one gaining from the interview
Acceptance of the unexpected
– Unanswered questions
Self-Confidence
– Practice and faith in oneself
29. Ann Oakley (1981): TheAnn Oakley (1981): The
Central DilemmaCentral Dilemma
Who holds power in the interview process?
Who gains from research?
What is false about ‘rapport’
in qualitative research
interviewing?
When does the
relationship finish?
31. FieldnotesFieldnotes
Sit alongside observations and interviews
Detailed notes and reflections of the field
Three types
– Descriptive
– Methodological
– Reflexive
Occur after/before – rather than during
32. Descriptive FieldnotesDescriptive Fieldnotes
Include observations
(scoping, descriptive,
focused, and selective)
Describe the field –
including maps,
setting descriptions,
and individual
description
34. Reflexive FieldnotesReflexive Fieldnotes
Journaling of own
learning/experiences/
thoughts throughout the
process
May sit within or
alongside descriptive and
methodological notes
Technically seen as
journaling of experience
35. Leading to the Role of theLeading to the Role of the
Qualitative ResearcherQualitative Researcher
36. The ReseacherThe Reseacher’’s Roles Role
“Being There”, “Getting Nosy” and “Looking
Over Others’ Shoulders” (Wolcott, 1995)
37. The ReseacherThe Reseacher’’s Roles Role
Being a learner
– ‘Sucking in’ the atmosphere of the field
– Reflecting on your own experiences
38. DilemmasDilemmas
What dilemmas and issues to research does
the practice of observation bring?
How can fieldnotes counter these issues and
dilemmas?
What else can the researcher do to ensure
that the story makes sense intrinsically (on
an emic level) and extrinsically (on an etic
level)?
39. Outside of EthnographyOutside of Ethnography
Scoping observations are central to making sure
that the research makes sense in itself
Fieldnotes ensures that researchers are observing
the field and themselves throughout the research
Fieldnotes allow for the subjective nature of
qualitative research to be acknowledged and, if
necessary, discussed
Interviews work as a tool of triangulation ensuring
that the story ‘fits’ and makes sense in itself
40. SummarySummary
The three key methods in qualitative
research are
– Observations
– Interviews
– Fieldnotes
It is important to use more than one (across
or within) to allow for triangulation