1. An overview of paradigms and theories Week 3 Review

2. Educational Technology From our reading this week, we know that AECT defines Educational technology as the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.

3. Focus on Learning Learning is the end product Prior focus on messages, control, and processes (1970s) 1972 definition foreshadows the current one

4. Paradigms and Theories A paradigm is a belief system or a framework for a set of values or concepts A theory is a model that attempts to provide an explanation for how something occurs (learning, in this case) Paradigms: postpositivism/objectivism; interpretivism/constructivism/relativism; and critical theory

5. Critical Theory Ideology or a position Draws on the principles and methods of the other two paradigms Asserts that learning should foster empowerment and promote social justice

6. From Learning Theory to Instructional Theory Learning theories describe the ways in which people learn (descriptive) Instructional theories address ways to deliver knowledge (prescriptive) Difficult to link prescriptive instructional solutions to descriptive learning theory

7. Perspectives Have Consequences The application of resources is influenced by one’s perspective on how people learn Likewise, policy is affected by one’s view on learning

8. Learning Defined and Viewed From Different Perspectives Learning facilitates change in performance through experiences and interactions (paraphrase of Driscoll, 2005). Each theory emphasizes different elements of learning and the learners role or process.

9. Behaviorism

10. Behaviorism Focus on radical behaviorism and operant conditioning Falls into the postpositivist/objectivist paradigm

11. Behaviorism in Educational Technology B. F. Skinner applied operant conditioning to learning Created an interactive device to deliver individual instruction through drill-and-practice lessons Teaching machines, as they were called, opened the field of programmed instruction

12. Teaching Machines and Programmed Instruction Programmed instruction is linear (no choices for the user) Feedback consists of the correct answer The field became known as educational technology during this time

13. Programmed Tutoring – Structured Tutoring A live tutor leads the student through the material Provides personal reinforcement for correct answers and prompts for incorrect responses Allowed students to work out incorrect answers rather than being given the correct response Students scored significantly higher compared to traditional methods

14. Direct Instruction Scripted, small group instruction Characterized by rapid and constant group interaction Uses continuous learner responses with instructor feedback

15. Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) The “Keller Plan” Structured content of a course or curriculum presented sequentially and offered through self-paced study Students must demonstrate proficiency to move from one unit to another A proctor provides coaching to correct any mistakes on the proficiency test

16. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) Followed drill & practice and tutorial formats Mid-1960s Stanford University 1970s TICCIT project at Brigham Young University

17. 1961, PLATO Project at University of Illinois - Used networked terminals and simplified programming language, TUTOR Drill & practice with some branching Broad coverage of college-level material Via experience and technology, additional strategies developed including labs and discovery methods

18. Behaviorism and Facilitating Learning Possible to dramatically improve learning outcomes through careful control of the delivery (using operant conditioning principles) Led to instructional systems design due to the methods of analyzing tasks, identifying objectives, chunking the content, and engaging in a patter of responses and feedback Allowed students to work on their own, shifting instruction from the teacher-centered, group-based model; made the student an active participant in the learning process. Applied across learning domains (cognitive, affective, motor skills)

19. Drawbacks/Roadblocks to Adoption Behaviorist technologies measured learning in terms of test scores: does this represent real learning/authentic application? will students apply the learning in the real-world or outside the classroom? Schools, colleges not prepared for the organizational changes necessary Teachers resist challenges to traditional, teacher-centered methods Changes are expensive - cost of technology must be offset by cost reductions in labor and infrastructure

20. cognitivism

21. Cognitivism Set of psychological theories that attempt to describe how students leverage their mental processes Differs from behaviorism in that it acknowledges the need to understand internal mental processes

22. Cognitivism Crosses the line between postpositivism and interpretivism: transitional in nature and blends elements of the two paradigms Addresses how the brain structures and stores information, and adapts those structures to accommodate exceptions Early influences in the 1920s and 1930s were Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, but did not impact the United States until translations became available in the 1960s

23. Influencing factors in the United States in the 1960s Translations of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s works Jerome Bruner (1960) Process of Education, which described children as “active problem-solvers” Emergence of information-processing theory in the late 60s

24. Piaget: Experiments with children developed a theory of classification systems (frameworks) for organizing information Assimilation (fit experiences into the framework) and accommodation (modification of the mental framework to integrate contradictions) Each process dominated at different times, and sometimes were equal, thus he concluded there were fixed stages of cognitive development

25. Emerging Theories

26. Information Processing Theory Learning occurs serially through a transformative process Focuses on how information is stored in memory

27. Schema Theory Similar to Piaget in that long-term memory is structured in a way that supports information and adapts to changes Stores knowledge in an abstract form Memory integrates new material with relevant and existing knowledge

28. Cognitive Load Theory Combines elements of information processing and schema theories Novices become experts as the mental schema expands Must control the cognitive load intake to process knowledge effectively

29. Neuroscience Uses physical observation of the brain and nervous system to understand mental processes Learning occurs by stimulating and stabilizing parts of the brain Challenge of education is to inspire learners to learn

30. Cognitivism in Educational Technology

31. Audiovisual Media Stimulates multiple senses; may overcome the limitations of text and lecture. Dale’s Cone of Experience (1946) - expanded notion of visual instruction; learning experiences can be arranged from concrete to abstract During the 1940s Gestalt psychology was an influencing factor - sensory perception, construction of knowledge from auditory & visual input

32. Visual Learning Compatible with principles of visual perception and message design typical to educational technology Covers a wide spectrum of theories, including Gestalt paradigms and traditional cognitivism Seeks to explain how humans perceive and interpret visual information (classification schemes) Alesandrini (1984): three categories: representational (pictures resemble a thing or idea), analogical (known objects used to imply similarity to an unknown concept), arbitrary (charts or diagrams that organize concepts, but don’t represent them) Other schemes proposed by researchers are based on specific mental functions: decorative, representational, mnemonic, organizational, relational, transformational, interpretive Influenced principles for use of visuals and text for message layout

33. Auditory Learning Processing, storing, and retrieving auditory information Barron (2004) suggests processing of auditory, visual, and verbal information occurs differently Cognitive load is a concern: the correct balance of multi-channel media used in communication; not clearly defined/difficult to define

34. Digital Multimedia - Focus on the Computer Cheap, easy to deliver multimedia Learner controlled Presentation of multiple sensory modalities closely resembles natural human cognitive system Transforms information from one input to another output (data into graphs) Linking of ideas May facilitate active involvement (immersive environments) Connects real world with classroom

35. Cognitivism and Facilitating Learning Limitation: meant to apply to learning in the cognitive domain Emphasizes careful arrangement of content Structure of new knowledge (advanced organizers) Objectives/content chunking Textual layout for comprehension/visuals

36. Frameworks: Gagne’s events of instruction: specific sequence of events Foshay, Silber, and Stelnicki - cognitive training model - 17 specific tactics organized around five strategic phases; overlaps with Gagne, but differs somewhat in content and emphasis; special emphasis on organizing and linking information; integrates motivational elements from Keller’s ARCS model

37. Constructivism

38. Constructivism Views of constructivism are diverse Closely assimilated with Ernst von Glasersfeld (1984), An introduction to radical constructivism: world is perceived and structured according to the learner’s means, and therefore is subjective Subjective, knowledge constructed via the learner’s schema

39. Problem of Defining Constructivism Lakoff’s work in sociolinguistics (1987) - experientialism; theory of language acquisition; cited as the influence for constructivism Duffey Cunningham, and Jonassen: most visible advocates for constructivism in ed tech; wide range of ideas from recent study of cognitive psychology Piage and Vygotsky also cited as influences Vygotky: sociocultural approach--children learn via social interaction with adults; lead to term social constructivism Terhart (2003): difficult to distinguish moderate constructivist theory from cognitivism; apply moderate constructivist label to those theories that accept the assumptions of cognitivism Driscoll (2005): common belief among all constructivist theories is that learners construct their own knowledge as they try to make sense of their experience “radical constructivist” based on von Glaserfeld (1992): reality is irrevocably subjective

40. Constructivist Prescriptions

41. Principles Learning in realistic environment Social negotiation Multiple perspectives/modes Ownership by the learner Self-awareness

42. Strategies Immersion Situated cognition human thoughts conceived within a specific context academic learning takes place in a classroom and tends not to transfer - “inert knowledge” cognitive apprenticeship is a method that uses social principles of constructivism to transfer knowledge: mentoring/coaching, modeling

43. Enduring Strategies Anchored Instruction Problem-Based Learning Collaborative Learning

44. Anchored Instruction (1990s) Based on situated cognition principles; use of videos that required students to interact with a realistic problem

45. Problem-Based Learning Immersive learning environments; overlap with anchored instruction, but emphasize involvement in the situation and, often, group collaboration

46. Collaborative Learning (Sociocultural) Also rooted in social constructivist principles; relies on collaboration techniques supported by computer mediation or facilitation

47. Constructivism in Educational Technology Supports engaged learning principles of the North Central Regional Education Laboratory Uses authentic activities and incorporates performance-based assessment Characterized by construction of knowledge versus repetition of facts Students and instructors are both recognized and producers and consumers of knowledge, teachers, and co-learners in the process

48. Constructivism and Facilitating Learning Opened up dialog about the merits and implications of constructivism; introduced new methods for exploration

49. Cautions Emerging from Research Problem based programs: less effective for novices; may have negative results if students construct knowledge inaccurately Instructional methods are often best suited for advanced learners who already have foundational knowledge

50. Moving into the 21st Century

51. Additional References: Clark, D. R. (2010). B. F. Skinner. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/skinner.html Smith, M.K. (2002). Jerome S. Bruner and the process of education in The Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm