Pioneers in psychiatry

PIONEERS
IN
PSYCHIATRY
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Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 at Moravia now Czech Re-
public. Despite of his parents poverty, they offered everything to give
him a proper education. Due to the economic crisis of 1857, his father
Jacob lost his business, and the family moved first to Leipzig, Germany
before settling in Vienna, Austria. In 1873 he joined the University of
Vienna to study medicine under Darwinist Prof. Karl Claus.
In 1877 he published his first paper On Intersexuality in eels and on
Petromyzon. The first law of thermodynamics laid the starting point for
Freud’s dynamic psychology of the mind and its relation to the uncon-
scious. In 1886, he opened his own medical practice, specializing in
neurology and introduced hypnotic suggestion a year later. In 1891 he
wrote On Aphasia, about language disorders and neurology. At the age
of 40, Freud was involved in the task of exploring his own dreams, memo-
ries, the dynamics of his personality development and use the term Psy-
choanalysis for the first time. In 1899 November, The Interpretation of
dreams was published, which contains dozens of dream analyses on the
way, as Freud says, to The Royal Road of Unconscious.
Freud is commonly referred to as The Father of Psychoanalysis and his
work has been highly influential — popularizing notions such as the
unconscious, the Oedipus complex, defense mechanisms, Freudian slips
and dream symbolism — while also making a long-lasting impact on
fields as diverse as literature, film, Marxist and feminist theories, and
psychology. In 1939, September 23 he died in London from cancer that
had dogged him since 1923.

Egaz Moniz
(1847-1955)
Antonio Caetano de Abreu Freire Egas Moniz was a Portuguese Neu-
rologist born in Avanca, Portugal on November 29, 1874. He is the first
Portuguese to receive a Nobel Prize, for his discovery of the therapeutic
value of leucotomy in certain psychoses.Moniz studied medicine in the
University of Coimbra and thereafter neurology in Bordeaux and Paris,
France.
In 1927 he developed cerebral angiography which helps medical faternity
to map blood vessels in and around the brain, permitting the diagnosis
of several kinds of neurological disorders, such as tumors and arterio-
venous malformations which saved thousands of lives. He received the
Oslo Prize for this discovery. In 1936, Egas Moniz and his associate
Almeida Lima developed for the first time a surgical technique to inter-
rupt the nerve fibers which connect the thalamus to the prefrontal cor-
tex. His technique of prefrontal leucotomy which was changed to lo-
botomy by American surgeons Walter Freeman and James Watts, was
widely used around the world in the next decade. Moniz received many
honours and international recognition, culminating with the Nobel Prize
jointly with the Swiss neurophysiologist Walter Rudolf Hess.
Dr. Moniz was shot in 1939 by a psychiatric patient. He survived and
recovered completely. The patient gave vague reasons for the shooting
saying he was unsatisfied with the dose of a drug Dr. Moniz had pre-
scribed. Dr. Moniz died in 1955, in Lisbon, Portugal, and his former
country house in Avanca became a museum where one can see his art
collection.

Paul Eugen Bleuler
(1857-1939)

Paul Eugen Bleuler
(1857-1939)
Paul Eugen Bleuler was born in Zollikon, Switzerland, on April 30,
1857 to Johann Rudolf Bleuler and Pauline Bleuler. He studied
medicine in Zurich, graduating in 1881. From 1881 to 1884 he was an
assistant physician at the University Psychiatric Clinic of Waldau-Bern.
He was the holder of the chair of psychiatry at the University of Zurich
and director of the university psychiatric clinic of Burgholzli in Zurich
(1898-1927). Bleuler introduced Freudian thought to psychiatry and
coined the word schizophrenia in 1908 a disorder which was previously
known as dementia praecox. Bleuler coined the New Latin word autismus
in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia, deriving it from
the Greek word autos (meaning self). According to the Critical
Dictionary of Psychoanalysis by Charles Rycroft, it was Bleuler who
introduced the term ambivalence (in 1911). Bleuler was one of the first
psychiatrists to accept psychoanalysis. His writings include Dementia
Praecox, or the Group of Schizophrenias (1911) and Textbook of
Psychiatry (1920).
Eugen Bleuler proposed 4 A’s in Schizophrenia i.e. Loose association;
Inappropriate affect; Autistic withdrawal and Ambivalence and he
died in July 15, 1939

Carl Wernicke
(1848-1905)
Carl Wernicke was born on 15th
May 1848 in Tarnovitz, Poland but his
family moved to Germany where he received all his education. Even
though he studied anatomy initially and neuropathology later he was
interested in psychiatry.
Shortly after Paul Broca published his findings on language deficits
caused by damage to what is now referred to as Broca’s area, Wernicke
began pursuing his own research into the effects of brain disease on
speech and language. Wernicke noticed that not all language deficits
were the result of damage to Broca’s area. Rather he found that damage
to the left posterior, superior temporal gyrus resulted in deficits in lan-
guage comprehension. This region is now referred to as Wernicke’s area,
and the associated syndrome is known as Wernicke’s aphasia, for his
discovery.
Wernicke created an early neurological model of language, that later
was revived by Norman Geschwind. The model is known as the
Wernicke-Geschwind model. He also described: 1. Wernicke aphasia
2. Wernicke encephalopathy. He also published a small volume on aphasia
which vaulted him into international fame. It was precise pathoanatomic
analysis paralleling the clinical picture.
Wernicke is best known for his work on sensory aphasia and
poliomyelitis hemorrhagia superior. Both of these descriptions bear his
name. Further, his books on the disorders of the internal capsule and his
textbooks on diseases of the nervous system perpetuate him.In 1904 he
died in Germany due to injuries suffered during a bicycle accident.

Emil Kraepelin
(1856-1926)
Emil Kraepelin was born in Neustrelitz on 15th
February 1856. He was a student
of Paul Flechsig at the University of Leipzig. In 1892 he announced a new way of
looking at mental illness. He referred to the traditional view as symptomatic and to
his view as clinical. This turned out to be his paradigm-setting synthesis of the
hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases
together based on classification of syndromes — common patterns of symptoms.
Kraepelin believed that psychiatric diseases are mainly caused by biological and
genetic disorders. Kraepelin opposed the approach of Sigmund Freud, who re-
garded and treated psychiatric disorders as caused by psychological factors.
Kraepelin is specifically credited with the classification of Psychosis into Manic
Depression and Dementia praecox. Kraepelin also demonstrated specific patterns
in the genetics among the relatives of schizophrenic patients than in the general
population. Kraepelin believed that schizophrenia had a deteriorating course in
which mental function continuously declines, while manic-depressive patients
experienced a course of illness, which was intermittent, where patients were
relatively symptom-free during the intervals which separate acute episodes. As a
colleague of Alois Alzheimer, and co-discoverer of Alzheimer’s disease, it was his
laboratory, which discovered its pathologic basis.
Kraepelin’s views now dominate psychiatric research, academic psychiatry, and
many published literatures in the field of psychiatry today. His fundamental theo-
ries on the etiology and diagnosis of psychiatric disorders form the basis of all
major diagnostic systems in use today, especially the American Psychiatric
Association’s DSM-IV and the World Health Organization’s ICD system. In that
sense, not only is Kraepelin’s significance is historical but also is the basis for
contemporary scientific psychiatry. Kraepelin was died on October 7, 1926

Daniel X Freedman
(1921–1993)
Daniel X Freedman was a psychiatrist and educator, pioneer in biological
psychiatry.He was born inAugust 17, 1921 in Crawfordsville, Indiana. While grow-
ing up, he was intrigued by reading Karl Menniger’s The Human Mind, which
kindled his life-long fascination with human behavior. He entered Harvard Col-
lege in 1939 with the intention of studying the behavioral sciences.
Soon after Pearl Harbor, Freedman enlisted in the Army. He suffered an injury but
continued to serve in the Army and distinguished himself as the seventh military
clinical psychologist. His wartime accomplishments also included performing the
first EEG for the Army, and conducting psychological tests at the Walter Reed
Hospital.
Freedman worked extensively with schizophrenic patients and their families, and
developed a particular interest in the clinical phenomena of psychosis, such as
hallucinations. During this time, he spent a year at NIMH to research the effects of
LSD on the brain and began his professional focus on the role of serotonin in brain
function.
In 1970, Dr. Freedman became Chief Editor of the AMA’s Archives of General
Psychiatry, perhaps the most respected psychiatric journal in the world. Under his
editorial leadership, the Archives’ policy elevated the quality of research in psy-
chiatry and behavioral sciences.
Dr. Freedman became a part of the Research Task Panel when President Jimmy
Carter established the President’s Commission on Mental Health in 1977. In 1984,
Dr. Freedman became the Judson Braun Professor of Psychiatry and Pharmacol-
ogy at UCLA. While at NPI, he continued his psychopharmacology research, with
an on-going emphasis on the role of serotonin in complex behavior. The Daniel X.
Freedman Memorial Lectureship was established to honor these lifelong achieve-
ments, and his contributions to the field of Psychiatry and to UCLA. He died in the
year 1993

Karl Theodor Jaspers
(1883-1969)

Karl Theodor Jaspers
(1883-1969)
Karl Theodor Jaspers was a German psychiatrist and philosopher who
had a strong influence on modern theology, psychiatry and philosophy.
Jaspers was born in Oldenburg in 1883 to a mother from a local farming
community, and a jurist father. He showed an early interest in philoso-
phy, but his father’s experience with the legal system undoubtedly influ-
enced his decision to study law at university. It soon became clear that
Jaspers did not particularly enjoy law, and he switched to studying medi-
cine in 1902.
He published a revolutionary paper in 1910 in which he addressed the
problem of whether paranoia was an aspect of personality or the result
of biological changes. Whilst not broaching new ideas, this article intro-
duced a new method of study. Jaspers studied several patients in detail,
giving biographical information on the people concerned as well as pro-
viding notes on how the patients themselves felt about their symptoms.
This has become known as the biographical method and now forms the
mainstay of modern psychiatric practice.
Jaspers set about writing his views on mental illness in a book which he
published as General Psychopathology. The two volumes which make
up this work have become a classic in the psychiatric literature and many
modern diagnostic criteria stem from ideas contained within them. Of
particular importance, Jaspers believed that psychiatrists should diag-
nose symptoms, particularly of psychosis by their form rather than by
their content. Jaspers also distinguished between primary and second-
ary delusions. He defined primary delusions as autochthonous mean-
ing arising without apparent cause, appearing incomprehensible in terms
of normal mental processes. Secondary delusions, on the other hand, he
classified as influenced by the person’s background, current situation or
mental state. Jaspers died in 1969

Julius Wagner Ritter von Jauregg
(1857-1940)
Julius Wagner Ritter von Jauregg was an Austrian physician born in
March 7, 1857, Wales Upper Australia. He studied medicine at the
University of Vienna from 1874 to 1880 in the Institute of General and
Experimental Pathology. He obtained his doctor’s degree in 1880.
The main work that concerned Wagner-Jauregg throughout his working
life was the endeavour to cure mental disease by inducing a fever. Al-
ready in 1887 he systematically investigated the effects of febrile dis-
eases on psychoses, later also making use of tuberculin. As this and
similar methods of treatment did not yield satisfactory results, he turned
in 1917 to malaria inoculation, which proved to be very successful in
the case of dementia paralytica. This discovery earned him the Nobel
Prize in 1927.
Among his numerous publications may be mentioned: Myxödem und
Kretinismus, in the Handbuch der Psychiatrie, (1912); Lehrbuch der
Organotherapie (Textbook of organotherapy), with G. Bayer, (1914);
Verhütung und Behandlung der progressiven Paralyse durch Impfmalaria
(Prevention and treatment of progressive paralysis by malaria
inoculation) in the Memorial Volume of the Handbuch der
experimentellen Therapie, (1931). He also assisted in formulating the
law regarding certification of the insane, which is still in force in Austria
today. In recognition of his services to forensic medicine he was awarded
the diploma of Doctor of Law.
Publishing about 80 scientific papers after his retirement, he enjoyed
good health and remained active until his death on September 27, 1940
in Vienna.

Philip Pinel
(1745-1826)
Philip Pinel, the leading French psychiatrist, was the first to say that the
“mentally deranged” were diseased rather than sinful or immoral. In
1793, he removed the chains and restraints from the inmates at the Bicetre
Asylum, and later from those at Salpetriere. Along with the English re-
former William Turk, he originated the method of “moral management,”
using gentle treatment and patience rather than physical abuse and chains
on hospital patients.
Pinel also classified types of mental illness, pioneered individual case
histories and systematic record keeping and emphasized vocational and
work experience. His two other major contributions were 1) Attempt to
categorize symptoms and 2) Application of moral treatment .
Pinel described four types of insanity: Melancholia, Disturbance in in-
tellectual functioning; Mania, Excessive nervous excitement with or with-
out delirium; Dementia, Disturbance in thought processes; and Idiocy,
Obliteration of intellectual faculties and affects. All four of the Pinel’s
categories emphasize on psychological causes of mental illness rather
than biological. However, he also indicated a predisposition to the later
development of insanity.
It is interesting that psychiatry as a field of medicine and the history of
psychiatry developed coincident with Pinel’s work at the end of the 18th
century in France. Pinel’s Treatise on Insanity was, the first modern
treatise on the subject. Pinel died in 1826.

Ugo Cerletti
(1877-1963)
Ugo Cerletti was an Italian Neurologist born in Conegliano, Italy on
September 26, 1877, who discovered the method of electroconvulsive
therapy in psychiatry.
He studied Medicine at Rome and Turin, later specialized in neurology and
neuropsychiatry. He studied with the most eminent neurologists Pierre Marie
and Dupre, then in Munich, Germany, with Emil Kraepelin and Alois
Alzheimer; and in Heidelberg, with Franz Nissl, a neuropathologist.
Cerletti first used ECT in a human patient, a diagnosed schizophrenic with
delusions, hallucinations and confusion, in April 1938, in collaboration
with Lucio Bini. A series of electroshocks were able to return the patient to
a normal state of mind. Thereafter, in the succeeding years, Cerletti and his
coworkers experimented with thousands of electroshocks in hundreds of
animals and patients, and were able to determine its usefulness and safety
in clinical practice, with several indications, such as in acute schizophre-
nia, manic-depressive illness, major depression episodes, etc. His work
was very influential, and ECT quickly spread out as a therapeutic
procedure all over the world. Cerletti also developed a theory that ECT
caused the brain to produce vitalising substances, called
agro-agonines.Which soon replaced metrazol therapy all over the world
because it was cheaper, less frightening and more convenient. Cerletti and
Bini were nominated for a Nobel Prize but didn’t get.
In his long activity as a psychiatrist and neurologist, Cerletti published 113
original papers, about the pathology of senile plaques in Alzheimer’s
disease, on the structure of neuroglia, the blood-brain barrier, syphilis, etc.
In 1950 he received a honorary degree by the College de Sorbonne at the
University of Paris, in addition to a long list of other awards and
degrees.Cerletti died in Rome, on July 25, 1963.

Karl Leonhard
(1904-1988)
Karl Leonhard was born in Edelsfeld, Bavaria, Germany as the sixth
of eleven children, his father being a Protestant minister. His medical
education at Erlangen, Berlin and Munich was completed in 1928.
He was a German psychiatrist, who stood in the tradition of Carl Wernicke
and Karl Kleist. He created a complex classification of psychotic
illnesses called nosological. His work covered Psychology,
Psychotherapy, Biological psychiatry and Biological psychology.
Moreover he created a classification of Nonverbal communication.
Most of his work was not translated into English. However summaries
of Leonhard’s views were included by Frank Fish in his Schizophrenia
of 1962 and Clinical Psychopathology of 1967, which were widely read,
if not understood, in their day.
Today diagnosis for psychotic patients and mentally or otherwise ill per-
sons are most commonly placed by ICD or DSM criteria. Psychosis will
in general appear as an affective disorder (e.g. depression), a form of
schizophrenia (e.g. catatonic type of schizophrenia) or a schizophrenia-
like disorder, like the schizoaffective disorder for example. However
the classification of psychosis by Leonhard is much more accurate. He
died on 23rd
April 1988 in East Berlin.

Aaron Temkin Beck
(1921)
Beck was born in 1921 at Providence, Rhode Island, the youngest child
of his three siblings. Beck’s parents were Jewish immigrants from
Russia. Beck taught himself how to work through his fears and
problems cognitively; this is what sparked the development of his theory
and therapies in later years.
Beck is an American psychiatrist and a professor emeritus at the depart-
ment of psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania. Beck is known as
the father of Cognitive Therapy and inventor of the widely used Beck
Scales, including the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Beck Hope-
lessness Scale, Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation (BSS), Beck Anxiety
Inventory (BAI) and Beck Youth Inventories..
Beck is noted for his research on psychotherapy, psychopathology, sui-
cide, and psychometrics, which led to his creation of Cognitive Therapy,
for which he received the 2006 Lasker award, and the Beck Depression
Inventory (BDI), one of the most widely used instruments for measur-
ing depression severity. Beck is also known for his creation of the Beck
Hopelessness Scale and the Beck Anxiety Inventory, and has founded
the Beck Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in which his daughter,
Dr. Judith Beck, works.

Martin Roth
(1917-2006)
Martin Roth was born into an orthodox Jewish family in Hungary in
1917.After the First World War his father, the cantor in a Budapest syna-
gogue, accepted the post of cantor in a synagogue in the East End of
London.The family arrived in Britain when Roth was about 8 years old.
He was Professor of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, 1977-85, then
Professor Emeritus, and was a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge
from 1977. He was one of the pioneers in developing psychogeriatrics
as a subspecialty.
Sir Martin Roth was one of the most respected and successful psychia-
trists of his generation. His contributions ranged widely, from the sys-
tematic classification and diagnosis of psychiatric disorders, through the
delineation, aetiology and treatment of depressive disorders, anxiety and
schizophrenia. Besides co-writing the classic textbook of medical psy-
chiatry, Mayer-Gross, Slater and Roth, he was an active force in the
establishment of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, its first president,
and the first Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Cambridge.
His work on the neuroscience of dementia gathered momentum. He con-
vinced Sir Aaron Klug, the director of the laboratory of molecular biol-
ogy, of the need to apply the methods of molecular science to studying
pathological structures, notably so-called neuro-fibrillary tangles
observed in abundance in brain tissue from patients with Alzheimer’s
disease.
Roth wrote more than 300 papers and received numerous awards, in-
cluding election as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1996 — an honour
enjoyed by only a handful of psychiatrists. He died in 2006.

John Frederick Joseph Cade
(1912-1980)

Dr John Frederick Joseph Cade
(1912-1980)
Born in Murtoa, Victoria to a doctor on January 18, 1912, John Frederick
Joseph Cade was an Australian psychiatrist credited with discovering
the effects of lithium carbonate as a mood stabilizer in the treatment of
bipolar disorder. Dr. Cade was educated at the Scotch College and the
University of Melbourne and worked at various mental asylums.
Although trained as a psychiatrist, Dr. Cade served in the Australian
Imperial Force as a surgeon during World War II.
Cade was originally investigating the hypothesis that mania was related
to urea and using lithium urate as part of an animal experiment. How-
ever, his use of careful controls in his experiments revealed that the
lithium ion had a calming effect by itself. A small-scale trial on humans
revealed that lithium had a powerful effect on mania in people. The calm-
ing effect was so robust that Cade speculated that bipolar disorder was a
lithium deficiency disease One problem was that the difference between
the sizes of ineffectual and toxic doses was very small and difficult to
control. The control was later improved when suitable tests were devel-
oped to measure the lithium level in the blood.
In the end, Dr. Cade’s discovery did receive the widespread
acknowledgements and praise it deserved. For his contribution to psy-
chiatry, he was awarded a Kittay International Award in 1974. He died
on November 16, 1980.

Seymour S. Kety
(1915-2000)
Seymour S. Kety was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on August
25, 1915. He received his medical training at theUniversity of Pennsyl-
vania. More than any other single individual, he was responsible for
modern psychiatry’s emergence as a rigorous and heuristic branch of
medicine that is constantly invigorated by the basic sciences.
He was an American neuroscientist who was credited with making mod-
ern psychiatry a rigorous and heuristic branch of medicine by applying
basic science to the study of human behavior in health and disease. After
Kety died, his colleague Louis Sokoloff noted that: He discovered a
method for measuring blood flow in the brain, was the first scientific
director of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and pro-
duced the most-definitive evidence for the essential involvement of ge-
netic factors in schizophrenia.
For these accomplishments, Dr. Kety, who was Professor Emeritus of
Neuroscience in the Department of Psychiatry at Harvard MedicalSchool,
received the 1999 Albert Lasker Special AchievementAward in Medical
Science, the most recent in a series of distinguished honors and prizes.
In establishing the foundations of present-daybrain research, Kety wove
together physiology, chemistry, andmorphology in a new understanding
of human behavior in healthand disease, including the severest of men-
tal diseases, schizophrenia.He truly opened the way to the utilization of
basic science for the common welfare of society. Seymour Kety died in
May 25, 2000.

Eric Richard Kandel
(1929)
Eric Richard Kandel, a psychiatrist, a neuroscientist and professor of
biochemistry and biophysics at the Columbia University College of
Physicians and Surgeons, was born in 1929 in Vienna, Austria, in a
middle-class Jewish family. Eventually Eric and his brother Ludwig, and
later their parents, succeeded in moving to the US.
Kandel took on the task of performing electrophysiological recordings of
hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Working with Alden Spencer, electro-
physiological evidence was found for action potentials in the dendritic
trees of hippocampal neurons. They also noticed the spontaneous pace-
maker-like activity of these neurons and a robust recurrent inhibition in
the hippocampus. With respect to memory, there was nothing in the gen-
eral electrophysiological properties of hippocampal neurons that suggested
why the hippocampus was special for explicit memory storage.
He was a recipient of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for
his research on the physiological basis of memory storage in neurons. He
shared the prize with fellow recipientsArvid Carlsson and Paul Greengard.
His other honors include the National Medal of Science, the Wolf Prize,
the Gairdner International Award, the Charles A. Dana Award and the
Lasker Award. Kandel has been at Columbia University since 1974, and
lives in NewYork City. Kandel has recently authored In Search of Memory:
The Emergence of a New Science of Mind, which chronicles his life and
research. The book was awarded the 2006 LosAngeles Times BookAward
for Science and Technology.

Jack Barchas
(1935)
Dr. Barchas is the psychiatrist in chief of New York Hospital. He gradu-
ated from Pomona College and received his medical degree from Yale
University. He is a son of Cecile M. Barchas of Sonoita, Ariz., and the
late Samuel I. Barchas. Dr. Barchas is the author or co-author of over
500 articles and 10 textbooks.
His research focus was on the relationship between neuroregulators and
behavior. Most prominently, Barchas was the first to demonstrate that
various types of neurotransmitters are altered differently by stress.
He is the former Editor of the Archives of General Psychiatry, perhaps
the most prominent American psychiatric journal. Barchas is a member
of the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences, as is
his wife, Dr. Rosemary Stevens. He is the winner of the 2006 Sarnat
International Award in Mental Health from the Institute of Medicine. He
is also a member of NARSAD’s Scientific Council.

Pierre Marie Felix Janet
(1859-1947)

Pierre Marie Felix Janet
(1859-1947)
Pierre Marie Felix Janet was born in May 30, 1859. He was a
pioneering French psychologist in the field of dissociation and traumatic
memory. In his childhood he acquired a fondness for the natural
sciences.
He was one of the first persons to draw a connection between events in
the subject’s past life and their present day trauma, and coined the words
‘dissociation’ and ‘subconscious’. He studied under Jean-Martin Char-
cot at the Psychological Laboratory in Pitie-Salpetriere Hospital, in Paris.
In several ways, he preceded Sigmund Freud. Many consider Janet, rather
than Freud, as the true ‘founder’ of psychoanalysis and psychotherapy.
Janet first published the results of his research in his philosophy thesis
in 1889 and in his medical thesis, Letat mental des hysteriques, in 1892.
In 1898 Janet was appointed as lecturer in psychology at the Sorbonne,
and in 1902 he attained the chair of experimental and comparative psy-
chology at the College de France, a position he held until 1936. In 1923,
he wrote a definitive text, La medecine psychologique, on suggestion
and in 1928-32, he published several definitive papers on memory. The
fifteen lectures he gave to the Harvard Medical School between 15 Oc-
tober and the end of November 1906 were published in 1907 as The
Major Symptoms of Hysteria and he received an honorary doctorate from
Harvard in 1936.He died in February 24, 1947.

John Bowlby
(1907-1990)
John Bowlby was a British psychoanalyst, notable for his interest in
child development and his pioneering work in attachment theory. He
was born in London to an upper-middle-class family. He was the fourth
of six children and was raised by a nanny in traditional British fashion
of his class. His father, Sir Anthony Bowlby, was surgeon to the King’s
Household. His intellectual career began at Trinity College, University
of Cambridge, where he studied psychology and pre-clinical sciences.
He won prizes for outstanding intellectual performance. Following medi-
cal school, he trained in adult psychiatry at the Maudsley Hospital. In
1937, he qualified as a psychoanalyst, and became president of Trinity
College in 1938.
Bowlby was interested in finding out the actual patterns of family inter-
action involved in both healthy and pathological development. He fo-
cused on how attachment difficulties were transmitted from one genera-
tion to the next.
It was in the light of such research evidence that Bowlby adapted the
original idea of ‘Maternal Deprivation’ and developed the attachment
theory. In his view, attachment behavior was an evolutionary survival
strategy for protecting the infant from predators, and attachment theory
reflects that. Mary Ainsworth, a student of Bowlby’s, further extended
and tested his ideas, and infact played the primary role in suggesting
that several attachment styles existed. Bowlby died September 2, 1990
at his summer home in Isle of Skye, Scotland.

Milton Hyland Erickson
(1901-1980)

Milton Hyland Erickson
(1901-1980)
Milton Hyland Erickson born on 5th December 1901 in Aurum, Ne-
vada, he was an American psychiatrist specializing in medical hypnosis
and family therapy. Erickson grew up in Lowell, Wisconsin in a modest
farming family, and intended to become a farmer like his father. He was
a late developer, and was both dyslexic and color blind. He overcame
his dyslexia, and had many other inspirations via a series of spontane-
ous autohypnotic ‘flashes of light’ or ‘creative moments’, as described
in the paper Autohypnotic Experiences of Milton H. Erickson.
Erickson was founding president of the American Society for Clinical
Hypnosis and a fellow of the American Psychiatric Association, the
American Psychological Association, and the American Psychopatho-
logical Association. Erickson believed that the unconscious mind was
always listening, and that, whether or not the patient was in trance, sug-
gestions could be made, which would have a hypnotic influence, as long
as those suggestions found some resonance at the unconscious level. It
should be noted that Erickson’s conception of the unconscious is defi-
nitely not the one held by Freud.
Erickson is most famous as a hypnotherapist, but his extensive research
into and experience with hypnosis led him to develop an effective thera-
peutic technique. Many of these techniques are not explicitly hypnotic,
but they are extensions of hypnotic strategies and language patterns.
Erickson recognized that resistance to trance resembles resistance to
change, and developed his therapeutic approach with that awareness.
Milton H. Erickson died in March 1980, aged 78, leaving four sons, four
daughters, and a lasting legacy to the worlds of psychology, psychiatry,
psychotherapy, pedagogics and communications.

Robert Michels
(1936)
Dr. Michels, a noted psychoanalyst, psychiatrist, scholar and teacher,
served as chairman of the Department of Psychiatry from 1974 to 1991
and as dean of the Medical College from 1991 to 1996. His clinical and
research interests in psychiatry have focused on psychoanalysis, per-
sonality disorders and medical ethics.
During his seventeen years as chairman at the Payne Whitney Psychiat-
ric Clinic, Cornell’s psychiatry department grew dramatically and be-
came perhaps the most prestigious and competitive training program in
the country. He became Dean of Cornell’s medical school in 1991. Since
retiring from the Deanship, Michels has continued his clinical and schol-
arly work.
He is the author of many articles and has co-edited multiple texts. His
best known work is “The Psychiatric Interview in Clinical Practice,”
which was written along with Roger MacKinnon and published in 1971.
Best selling in its time, a second edition was published in 2006. While
he has written widely and headed many local and national organiza-
tions, Michels is best known for his imposing intellect and his ability to
decipher the underlying process in almost any situation.
Dr. Michels is currently the Walsh McDermott University Professor of
Medicine and Psychiatry.

Thomas Stephen Szasz
(1920)
Thomas Stephen Szasz was born in Budapest, Hungary, is a psychia-
trist and academic. He is Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry at the State
University of New York Health Science Center in Syracuse, New York.
He is a prominent figure in the antipsychiatry movement, a well-known
social critic of the moral and scientific foundations of psychiatry, and of
the social control aims of medicine in modern society, as well as of
scientism. He is well known for his books, The Myth of Mental Illness
(1960) and The Manufacture of Madness: A Comparative Study of the
Inquisition and the Mental Health Movement, which set out some of the
arguments with which he is most associated.
Szasz has been associated with the anti-psychiatry movement of the 1960s
and 1970s, although he has resisted being identified as an anti-psychia-
trist. He is not opposed to the practice of psychiatry if it is non-coercive.
He maintains that psychiatry should be a contractual service between
consenting adults with no state involvement. He favors the abolition of
involuntary hospitalization for mental illness. In a 2006 documentary
film called Psychiatry: An Industry of Death released on DVD, Szasz
stated that involuntary mental hospitalization is a crime against human-
ity. Szasz also believes that, if unopposed, involuntary hospitalization
will expand into pharmacratic dictatorship.
Szasz’s work has influenced thinkers as diverse as Karl Popper,
Milton Friedman, and Michel Foucault.

Kurt Schneider
(1887–1967)
Kurt Schneider was a German psychiatrist known largely for his writ-
ing on the diagnosis and understanding of schizophrenia. Schneider was
born in Crailsheim in Germany, and trained in medicine in Berlin and
Tübingen.
He was drafted for military service in World War I and later obtained a
postgraduate qualification in psychiatry. In 1931 he became director of
the Psychiatric Research Institute in Munich, which was previously
founded by Emil Kraepelin.
Disgusted by the developing tide of psychiatric eugenics championed
by the Nazi party, Schneider left the institute and served as an army
doctor during World War II. After the war, anti-Nazi academics were
appointed to serve in, and rebuild Germany’s medical institutions and
Schneider was given the post of Dean of the Medical School at Heidel-
berg University. Schneider kept this post until his retirement in 1955.
Schneider was concerned with improving the method of diagnosis in
psychiatry. Like Karl Jaspers, he particularly championed diagnoses based
on the form, rather than the content of a sign or symptom. He argued
that a delusion should not be diagnosed by the content of the belief, but
by the way in which a belief is held. He died in the year 1967.

Leon Eisenberg
(1922)
Leon Eisenberg a child psychiatrist and medical educator, and is cred-
ited with a number of “firsts” in medicine and psychiatry - in child psy-
chiatry, autism, and the controversies around autism, RCTs, social medi-
cine, global health, affirmative action, and evidence-based psychiatry
The reasons Leon Eisenberg is listed as a famous figure in the world and
American psychiatry are numerous. He completed the first outcome study
of autistic children in adolescence and recognized patterns of language
use as the best predictor of prognosis. He introduced randomized con-
trolled trials (RCTs) in psychopharmacology and showed that “tranquil-
izing” drugs were inferior to placebo in the treatment of anxiety disor-
ders, whereas stimulant drugs were effective in controlling hyperactiv-
ity. He completed the first RCTs of psychiatric consultation to social
agencies and of the utility of brief psychotherapy in anxiety disorders.
He published a forceful critique of Konrad Lorenz’s instinct theory. He
established the usefulness of distinguishing disease from illness. He has
highlighted the environmental context as a determinant of the pheno-
type emerging from a given genotype, and until recently and since the
late 1990s.
Leon Eisenberg is proudest of the Diversity LifetimeAchievementAward
he received in 2001 for his role in inaugurating affirmative action at
HMS in 1968 and sustaining it as Chairman of the Admissions Commit-
tee from 1969 to 1974. He regards that as his most important contribu-
tion to Harvard Medical School.

Mogens Schou
(1918-2005)
Mogens Schou was born in Copenhagen, Denmark on November 24,
1918. His father was a psychiatrist and medical director of a large men-
tal hospital in Denmark. Schou chose to study medicine with a specific
view to do research on manic-depressive illness. He graduated with a
degree in medicine from the University of Copenhagen in 1944.
He was a Danish psychiatrist whose groundbreaking research into
Lithium led to its utilization as a treatment for bipolar illness. His work
ultimately benefited thousands of patients worldwide. Mogens had a
long and distinguished career dedicated to research on therapeutic uses
of lithium rooted in his deep concern for all patients with mood disor-
ders.
After he discovered lithium’s prophylactic action in mood disorders, he
tirelessly researched all its aspects and did not spare any effort to make
the treatment available to all those in need. Millions of patients with
recurrent mood disorders benefited because of his research. In 1990,
authorities on manic-depressive illness such as Fred Goodwin and Kay
Jamison characterized the ground-breaking discovery of lithum prophy-
laxis as ‘one of the most important advances in modern psychiatry’. He
was an author of more than 500 publications, including texts, research
papers, articles and book chapters.
Schou had received many awards and honors. Schou published approxi-
mately 540 works on lithium and lithium therapy. Many international
awards and honors were conferred on him. Schou died on September
29, 2005 after a brief illness.

Robert L. Spitzer
(1932)
Robert L. Spitzer is a Professor of Psychiatry at Columbia University
in New York City, United States. He chaired of the task force of the third
edition of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Sta-
tistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) which was released in
1980. He has been referred to as a major architect of the modern classi-
fication of mental disorders, which involves classifying mental disor-
ders in discrete categories, with specified diagnostic criteria.
In 2001, Spitzer delivered a controversial paper at the 2001 annual APA
meeting arguing that highly motivated individuals could successfully
change their sexual orientation from homosexual to heterosexual. The
APA immediately issued an official disapproval of the paper, noting that
it had not been peer reviewed and bluntly stating that There is no pub-
lished scientific evidence supporting the efficacy of reparative therapy
as a treatment to change one’s sexual orientation.
Spitzer conclusions are based on his study, that there is evidence to sug-
gest that some gay men and lesbians are not only able to change self-
identity, but are able to modify core features of sexual orientation, in-
cluding fantasies. Spitzer’s study has managed to lift the 30 year mora-
torium on the scientific investigation of homosexuality.

Karl Kleist
(1879-1960)
Karl Kleist was a German physician, born in Mulhausen in Elsass now
Alsace, France on January 31, 1879. He studied at Strassburg, Heidel-
berg, Berlin, and Munich, where he obtained his doctorate in 1902. Karl
Kleist aspired to take up neuropsychiatry under the most prominent fig-
ures of his time. Theodor Ziehen exposed him to Ernst Mach’s
empiriocriticism, and Carl Wernicke exposed him to Gustav Theodor
Fechner’s psychophysics. Struck by Wernicke’s premature death, Kleist
was determined to advance descriptive psychopathology and neuropsy-
chology. Kleist confirmed similarities between organic mentaldisorders
and endogenous psychoses.
Kleist deserves credit for isolating symptomatic psychoses, involutional
paranoia, episodic twilight states, object- and form-blindness, frontal
akinesia and aspontaneity as wellas frontal, constructional, limb-kinetic,
and psychomotor apraxias. Challenging Bleulerian notions of primary
symptoms, Kleist conceptualized schizophrenias asconditions affecting
various psychic systems.
Kleist conceptualized the core group of schizophrenic illness as psychic
system diseases. Hence the origin of the term Systemic Schizophrenias.
His localization of cerebral functions by lesion analyses was indeed the
best available at the time and continues to reveal insights to the inter-
ested readers.
His technical mastery and achievements seems indisputable, but his bal-
ancing acts during the Third Riech may today be questioned. He died in
December 26, 1960, Frankfurt, Germany.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849-1936)

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849-1936)
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born on September 14, 1849 at Ryazan,
where his father, Peter Dmitrievich Pavlov, was a village priest. He was
educated first at the church school in Ryazan and then at the theological
seminary.
Pavlov contributed to many areas of physiology and neurology. Most of
his work involved research in temperament, conditioning and involun-
tary reflex actions. Pavlov’s research into the physiology of digestion
led him logically to create a science of conditioned reflexes. Pavlov trans-
formed Sechenov’s theoretical attempt to discover the reflex mechanisms
of psychic activity into an experimentally proven theory of conditioned
reflexes.
Even in the early stages of his research Pavlov received world acclaim
and recognitions like Corresponding member of the Russian Academy of
Sciences in 1901, Nobel Prize in 1904, Elected as Academician of the
Russian Academy of Sciences in 1907, Honorary doctorate at Cambridge
University in 1912 and in the following years Honorary membership of
various scientific societies abroad. Finally, upon the recommendation
of the Medical Academy of Paris, he was awarded the Order of the Le-
gion of Honour in 1915.
He wanted to create unique evidence of subjective experiences of this
terminal phase of life. The great scientific courage of Pavlov is
exhibited by this story: he tried to learn, and to increase knowledge of
physiology, even on his deathbed. He died in Leningrad on Februray 27,
1936 and his laboratory in Saint Petersburg has been carefully preserved
as a museum.

Paul Greengard
(1925)
Paul Greengard is an American neuroscientist best known for his work
on the molecular and cellular function of neurons. Greengard was born
in New York City. During World War II, he served in the United States
Navy as an electronics technician at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology working on an early warning system against Japanese kamikaze
planes. After the war, he attended Hamilton College where he graduated
in 1948 with a bachelor’s degree in mathematics and physics
Greengard’s research has focused on events inside the neuron caused by
neurotransmitters. Specifically, Greengard and his fellow researchers
studied the behavior of second messenger cascades that transform the
docking of a neurotransmitter with a receptor into permanent changes in
the neuron. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2000 for showing how
neurotransmitters act on the cell and can activate a central molecule
known as DARPP-32 along with Arvid Carlsson and Eric Kandel.
In 1953, Greengard received his PhD and began postdoctoral work at
the University of London, Cambridge University, and the University of
Amsterdam. As a professor, he has worked at the Albert Einstein Col-
lege of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Yale University, and The
Rockefeller University. He is currently Vincent Astor Professor at
Rockefeller University.

Arvid Carlsson
(1923)
Arvid Carlsson is a Swedish scientist who is best known for his work
with the neurotransmitter dopamine and its effects in Parkinson’s dis-
ease. Carlsson was born in Uppsala, Sweden, son of Gottfrid Carlsson,
historian and later professor of history at the Lund University, where he
began his medical education in 1941.
Carlsson won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2000 along
with co-recipients Eric Kandel and Paul Greengard.
In 1957 Carlsson demonstrated that dopamine was a neurotransmitter in
the brain and not just a precursor for norepinephrine, as had been previ-
ously believed. He developed a method for measuring the amount of
dopamine in brain tissues and found that dopamine levels in the basal
ganglia, a brain area important for movement, were particularly high.
Carlsson then showed that giving animals the drug reserpine caused a
decrease in dopamine levels and a loss of movement control. These ef-
fects were similar to the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. By adminis-
tering to these animals L-Dopa, which is the precursor of dopamine, he
could alleviate the symptoms. These findings led other doctors to try
using L-Dopa on patients with Parkinson’s disease, and found it to alle-
viate some of the symptoms in the early stages of the disease. L-Dopa is
still the basis for most commonly used means of treating Parkinson’s
disease.

Adolf Meyer
(1866-1950)
Born on September 13, 1866 in Niederwenigen, near Zurich, Switzerland, Adolf Meyer
was a Swiss psychiatrist who rose to prominence as the president of the American
Psychiatric Association and was one of the most influential figures in psychiatry in the
first half of the twentieth century.
In 1902, he became director of the Pathological Institute of the New York State Hospital
system, where in the next few years he shaped much of American psychiatry by
emphasizing the importance of keeping detailed patient records and by introducing both
Emil Kraepelin’s classificatory system and Sigmund Freud’s ideas.
His principal contributions were through his ideas of psychobiology or ergasiology, a
term he coined from the Greek words for working and doing. Thus his emphasis on
collecting detailed case histories for patients, paying particular attention to the social and
environmental background to a patient’s upbringing. Meyer believed that mental illness
results from personality dysfunction, rather than brain pathology. His later teachings
resisted some of the ideas of Sigmund Freud, which Meyer thought placed too much
emphasis on factors that were tangential to the functional needs of patients in their every-
day lives. Though Meyer’s own system of nomenclature never caught on, his ideas, espe-
cially those emphasizing the importance of social factors, and his insistence on under-
standing the life of the patient through careful interviewing, did exert some influence but
perhaps remain largely unappreciated in the history of American psychiatry.
It was Meyer who suggested the term ‘mental hygiene’ to Clifford Beers, after which
Beers founded, with the support of Meyer and William James, the Connecticut Society
for Mental Hygiene (1908) and the National Committee for Mental Hygiene (1909).
Meyer Died in March 17, 1950.

Professor Eve C. Johnstone
(1944)
Born on September 1944 in Glasgow. Eve C. Johnstone is currently Pro-
fessor of Psychiatry and Head of the Division of Psychiatry at the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh in Scotland.
Her main research area is in the field of schizophrenia and psychotic
illness. Whilst she has published extensively and many of her studies
have been influential she is best known for her groundbreaking 1976
study. This involved using a PET scanner to produce brain images of
schizophrenic patients, which were then compared to normal controls.
Using this method she was able to demonstrate anatomical differences
between the brains of people with schizophrenia compared with the nor-
mal controls.
In addition to her research interests, Prof. Johnstone is also a full time
Consultant Psychiatrist at the Royal Edinburgh Hospital.
Prof. Johnstone counts Opera amongst her interests. On October 15,
2007 Eve C. Johnstone was awarded the Lieber Prize for Outstanding
Achievement in Schizophrenia Research by NARSAD.

Carl Gustav Jung
(1875 - 1961)
Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist, influential thinker, and founder
of analytical psychology, born on July 26, 1875, in the small Swiss vil-
lage of Kessewil. His father was Paul Jung, a country parson, and his
mother was Emilie Preiswerk Jung.
Jung’s unique and broadly influential approach to psychology has em-
phasized understanding the psychoses through exploring the worlds of
dreams, art, mythology, world religion and philosophy.Although he was
a theoretical psychologist and practicing clinician for most of his life,
much of his life’s work was spent exploring other realms, including East-
ern and Western philosophy, alchemy, astrology, sociology, as well as
literature and the arts. His most notable contributions include his con-
cept of the psychological Jungian archetype, the collective unconscious,
and his theory of synchronicity.
Jung emphasized the importance of balance and harmony. He cautioned
that modern humans rely too heavily on science and logic and would
benefit from integrating spirituality and appreciation of the unconscious
realm.
Today Jung’s and Freud’s theories influence different schools of
psychiatry, but, more importantly, they influenced each other during
intellectually formative years of their lives. He died in the year 1961.

Jean Martin Charcot
(1825-1893)

Jean Martin Charcot
(1825-1893)
Born in Paris, Jean Martin Charcot worked and taught at the famous
Salpêtrière Hospital for thirty three years. His reputation as an instructor
drew students from all over Europe. In 1882, he established a neurology
clinic at Salpêtrière, which was the first of its kind in Europe. He was a
French neurologist and professor of anatomical pathology. His work
greatly influenced the developing fields of neurology and psychology.
He was called “the Napoleon of the neuroses.”
Charcot’s primary focus was neurology. He named and was the first to
describe multiple sclerosis. He was also the first to describe a disorder
known as Charcot joint or Charcot arthropathy, a degeneration of joint
surfaces resulting from loss of proprioception. He researched the func-
tions of different parts of the brain and the role of arteries in cerebral
hemorrhage.
In 1861 and 1862, Jean-Martin Charcot, withAlfred Vulpian, added more
symptoms to James Parkinson’s clinical description and then subse-
quently attached the name Parkinson’s disease to the syndrome.
But Charcot’s most enduring work is that on hypnosis and hysteria. Char-
cot believed that hysteria was a neurological disorder caused by heredi-
tary problems in the nervous system. He used hypnosis to induce a state
of hysteria in patients and studied the results, and was single-handedly
responsible for changing the French medical community’s opinion about
the validity of hypnosis. He died on 16th
August 1893.

Otto F. Kernberg
(1928)
Born in Vienna, Kernberg and his family fled Nazi Germany in 1939,
immigrating to Chile. He studied biology and medicine and afterwards
psychiatry and psychoanalysis with the Chilean Psychoanalytic Society
He is professor of psychiatry at Weill Medical College of Cornell Uni-
versity. He is most widely known for his psychoanalytic theories on
borderline personality organization and narcissistic pathology. He was
President of the International Psychoanalytical Association from 1997
to 2001.
His integrative writings were central to the development of modern ob-
ject relations, a theory of mind that is perhaps the theory most widely
accepted among modern psychoanalysts. His principle contributions have
been in the fields of narcissism, object relations theory and personality
disorders.
He was awarded the 1972 Heinz Hartmann Award of the New York Psy-
choanalytic Institute and Society, the 1975 Edward A. Strecker Award
from the Institute of Pennsylvania Hospital, the 1981 George E. Daniels
Merit Award of the Association for Psychoanalytic Medicine.

Peter McGuffin
(1952)
Peter McGuffin is a psychiatric geneticist from Belfast, Northern Ire-
land. After emigrating with his parents at age of 10 to the Isle of Wight,
he first decided that he wanted to be a psychiatrist at the age of 16 after
coming across Freud’s Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, in a
local public library. He attended medical school at the University of
Leeds, England where he graduated in 1972 and then received post-
graduate training in internal medicine. It was at this stage that he be-
came interested in genetics and had his first publications on immunoge-
netic aspects of coronary heart disease. He transferred this interest to
psychiatric disorders and carried out one of the first genetic marker as-
sociation studies on schizophrenia.
He completed his training as a psychiatrist at the Maudsley Hospital,
London and was awarded a Medical Research Council Fellowship to
study genetics at the University of London and at Washington Univer-
sity, St Louis, Missouri. He subsequently became an MRC Senior Clini-
cal Fellow at the Maudsley and the Institute of Psychiatry and then took
up the Chair of Psychological Medicine at the University of Wales Col-
lege of Medicine in Cardiff in 1987.
He succeeded in appointing Prof Sir Michael Rutter as Director of the
MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre at the Insti-
tute of Psychiatry in October 1998. Despite his very early Freudian lean-
ings, McGuffin’s research, his books and papers have been mainly on
the genetics of normal and abnormal behavior. In 2007 he became the
Dean of the Institute of Psychiatry.

Pierre Paul Broca
(1824-1880)
Pierre Paul Broca was born in Sainte-Foy-la-Grande, France in 1824.He
was a French physician, anatomist, and anthropologist. Broca was a bril-
liant student. He entered medical school in Paris when he was only 17
years old, and graduated at 20.
Broca is most famous for his discovery of the speech production center
of the brain located in the ventroposterior region of the frontal lobes,
now known as the Broca’s area. He arrived at this discovery by studying
the brains of aphasic patients. The discovery of the Broca’s area revolu-
tionized the understanding of speech production. New research has found
that dysfunction in the Broca’s area may lead to other speech disorders
such as stuttering and apraxia of speech.
His early scientific works dealt with the histology of cartilage and bone,
but he also studied cancer pathology, the treatment of aneurysms, and
infant mortality. One of his major concerns was the comparative anatomy
of the brain. His celebrated paper refers to many animal species. As a
neuroanatomist he made important contributions to the understanding
of the limbic system and rhinencephalon. Olfaction was for him a sign
of animality. His research on the localization of speech led to entirely
new research into the lateralization of brain function.
Broca was also a pioneer in the study of physical anthropology. Another
field in which Broca contributed significantly was the comparative
anatomy of primates. He described, for the first time, trephined skulls
from the Neolithic. Near the end of his life, Paul Broca was elected a
lifetime member of the French Senate. Broca’s brain is now a specimen
at the Museum of Man in Paris.

Antoni Kepinski
(1918-1972)
Born in November 16, 1918 in Dolina near Stanislawow, Antoni Kepinski
was a Polish psychiatrist. He was educated in Krakow where he attended
one of the best Grammar Schools and from 1936 he started his medical
studies at the Jagiellonian University. In 1944-1945 he continued his medi-
cal studies in Edinburgh graduating in 1946. He was a famous Polish
thinker, one of the most outstanding figures in the Polish cultural history
during the second half of the 20th century. His name was linked with the
tradition of the Polish school of philosophy of medicine and humanistic
psychiatry.
An important part of Kepinski’s work was research into the capabilities of
a person’s knowledge. It is possible to distinguish here two theoretical
approaches: the oblique relation,based on the scientific model of cogni-
tion, and the horizontal relation with reference to the humanistic animis-
tic model of knowledge. Following the phenomenological perspective,
Kepinski considered that the understanding of subjective phenomena has
to be arrived at through empathy. It may be grasped by transferring one-
self into the other individual’s psyche. However, only very primordial
emotions presented in nonverbal, extralingual elements of behaviour can
be approached by empathy. Such direct cognition is triggered by the primi-
tive biological mechanisms that we and other species have in common.
His theories of information metabolism and axiological psychiatry are
quite well known and his scientific work covers over 140 publications
and several books. His famous books include Rhythum of life, Psychopa-
thology of neuroses, Schizophrenia, Fear etc. He died in June 8, 1972 in
Krakow.

Professor Sir Michael Rutter
(1933)
Sir Michael Rutter is the first consultant of child psychiatry in the United
Kingdom. Although he has been described as the “father of child psychol-
ogy” he would be more accurately characterized as the father of modern
child psychiatry.
Sir Michael’s work includes: early epidemiologic studies, studies of au-
tism involving a wide range of scientific techniques and disciplines, in-
cluding DNA study and neuroimaging; links between research and prac-
tice. The British Journal of Psychiatry credits him with a number of break-
throughs in these areas and Professor Sir Michael Rutter is also recog-
nized as contributing centrally to the establishment of child psychiatry as
a medical and biopsychosocial specialty with a solid scientific base.
He has published over 40 books including Maternal Deprivation Reas-
sessed (1972) which New Society describes as A classic in the field of
child care. In this work he qualified the theory of Maternal Deprivation
which had been developed by Dr John Bowlby and expressed for popular
consumption in Maternal Care and Mental Health (1951) and Child Care
and the Growth of Love (1953). That theory was that children were dam-
aged by separation from their mother or mother figure. According to
Schaffer in Social Development (2000) it is now generally accepted that
social convention accounts for whatever differences are observed amongst
mothers and fathers.
Professor Sir Michael Rutter is an honorary member of the British Acad-
emy and is an elected Fellow of the Royal Society. He is a Founding
Fellow of the Academy of Europe and the Academy of Medical Sciences,
and was knighted in 1992.

Walter Rudolf Hess
(1881-1973)

Walter Rudolf Hess
(1881-1973)
Walter Rudolf Hess was born in Frauenfeld. He received his medical
degree from the University of Zurich in 1906 and trained as surgeon and
ophthalmologist. In 1912, he left his lucrative private practice as an oph-
thalmologist and went into research. He was a Swiss physiologist who
won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for mapping the
areas of the brain involved in the control of internal organs. He shared
the prize with Egas Moniz.
The scientific interests of Professor Hess were primarily directed to-
wards haemodynamics and, in connection with this, the regulation of
respiration. While the experimental work on the subject of the central
coordination of vegetative organs has in general been extended, a com-
prehensive picture has emerged of the representation of the vegetative
nervous system in the diencephalon. His main interests were the regula-
tion of blood flow and respiration. As an outgrowth of these research
interests, he began mapping the parts of the diencephalon that control
the internal organs, which has been accorded distinction by the Nobel
Prize.
From 1917 to 1951, he served as professor and director of the Depart-
ment of the Physiological Institute at the University of Zurich. Hess
died in Locarno, Switzerland in August 12, 1973.

Eduard Hitzig
(1839-1907)
Eduard Hitzig was a German neuropsychiatrist from Berlin. He stud-
ied medicine in Berlin and Wurzburg, received his doctorate in 1862,
and subsequently practiced medicine in Berlin and Wurzburg. In 1875,
Hitzig became director of the Burgholzli asylum, as well as professor of
psychiatry at the University of Zurich. In 1885, Hitzig became a profes-
sor at the University of Halle, where he remained until his retirement in
1903.
Hitzig is remembered for his work concerning the interaction between
electrical current and the brain. In 1870 Hitzig published his findings in
an essay called “On the Electrical Excitability of the Cerebrum”. This
experimentation was considered the first time anyone had done any lo-
calized study regarding the brain and electrical current.
Hitzig noticed that applying a small electrical current to the brains of
these soldiers caused involuntary muscular movement. Apparently
Hitzig’s crude experimentation was inspired by work of 18th century
physicist Luigi Galvani who noticed these same electrical phenomena
on the brains of frogs. Hitzig and Fritsch’s work opened the door to
further “localized testing” of the brain by many others including Scot-
tish neurologist, David Ferrier. He died on August 20, 1907.

Francois Baillarger
(1809-1890)

Jules Baillarger
(1809-1890)
Jules Baillarger was a French neurologist and psychiatrist who was
born in Montbazon. He studied medicine at the University of Paris un-
der Jean-Etienne Dominique Esquirol (1772-1840), and while a student
worked as an intern at the Charenton mental institution. In 1840 he ac-
cepted a position at the Salpetriere, and soon after became director of a
mental asylum in Ivry. With Jacques-Joseph Moreau (1804-1884) and
others, he founded the influential Annales medico-psychologiques.
In 1840 Baillarger was the first physician to discover that the cerebral
cortex was divided into six layers of alternate white and grey laminae.
Also the eponymous bands of Baillarger are named after another finding
of his; these bands are two layers of white fibers that run parallel to the
surface of the cerebral cortex.
In the field of psychiatry, Baillarger did research on the involuntary na-
ture of hallucinations and the dynamics of the hypnagogic state, which
is the intermediary stage between sleep and wakefulness. In 1854 he
gave one of the first clinical descriptions of a bipolar disorder, which he
called folie a double forme, dual-form insanity. Roughly at the same
time another French psychiatrist, Jean-Pierre Falret described the same
symptoms, which he referred to as folie circulaire, circular madness.
Baillarger died on December 31, 1890.

Franz Nissl
(1860-1919)
Franz Nissl, a German Neuropathologist born in Frankenthal in the Ba-
varian Palatinate, the son of Theodor Nissl and Maria Haas. Nissl’s fa-
ther, who taught Latin in a Catholic school, intended his son to become
a priest but, against his parents’ wishes, Nissl entered the study of medi-
cine at the University of Munich. He is best known for developing a
histological stain which allowed for selective visualization of neuronal
cell bodies throughout the brain, ushering a new era in neurocytology
and neuropathology. He also did important work in psychiatry correlat-
ing changes in glial cells, blood vessels, and brain tissue in general with
mental illness. He also worked with and was friends withAloisAlzheimer.
The Nissl method uses basic aniline to stain RNA blue, and is used to
highlight important structural features of neurons. The Nissl substance
appears dark blue due to the staining of ribosomal RNA, giving the cyto-
plasm mottled appearance. Individual granules of extranuclear RNA are
named Nissl granules (ribosomes). DNA present in the nucleus stains a
similar color.
Nissl was possibly the greatest neuropathologist of his day and also a
fine clinician who popularised the use of spinal puncture introduced by
Heinrich Irenaeus Quincke (1842-1922). He was nicknamed “punctator
maximus”. Apart from his studies on the structure of the neurones, he
examined connections between the cortex and the thalamic nuclei. This
work was still in progress when he died.Towards the end of his life he
studied the nature of the connections between the cerebral cortex and the
thalamus. He died on August 11, 1919.

Hans Berger
(1873-1941)
Hans Berger was born in Neuses near Coburg, Thuringia, Germany. He
is known as the first to record electroencephalograms from human sub-
jects and is the discoverer of the rhythmic Alpha brain waves. Berger
originally had intended to study astronomy. While he was serving in the
German army in the early 1890s. He studied medicine at the University
of Jena, receiving his doctorate in 1897.
Among his many research interests in neurology, Berger studied brain
circulation, psychophysiology and brain temperature. However his main
contribution to medicine and neurology was the systematic study of the
electrical activity of human brain and the development of
electroencephalography (EEG), following the pioneering work done by
Richard Caton (1842-1926) in England with animals. In 1924, Berger
made the first EEG recording in man and called it Electroenkephalogram.
Using the EEG, he was also the first to describe the different waves or
rhythms which were present in the normal and abnormal brain, such as
the alpha wave rhythm (8-12 Hz), also known as Berger’s wave; and its
suppression. He also studied and described for the first time the nature
of EEG alterations in brain diseases such as epilepsy.
Disturbed by the consequences of Second World War and National So-
cialism to his professional and private world, Hans Berger committed
suicide by hanging himself on June 1, 1941.

Korbinian Broadmann
(1868-1918)

Korbinian Brodmann
(1868-1918)
Brodmann studied medicine in Munich, Wurzburg, Berlin and Freiburg,
where he received his medical diploma in 1895. Subsequently he stud-
ied at the Medical School in the University of Lausanne in Switzerland,
and then worked in the University Clinic in Munich. He got a doctor of
medicine degree from the University of Leipzig in 1898. He was a Ger-
man neurologist who became famous for his definition of the cerebral
cortex into 52 distinct regions from their cytoarchitectonic characteris-
tics. These areas are now usually referred to as Brodmann areas.
Some of these areas were later associated to nervous functions, such as
areas 41 and 42 in the temporal lobe (related to hearing), areas 1, 2 and
3 in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe (the somatosensory re-
gion), and the areas 17 and 18 in the occipital lobe (the primary visual
areas).
In 1909 he published his original research on cortical cytoarchitectonics
in “Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Großhirnrinde in ihren
Prinzipien dargestellt auf Grund des Zellenbaues” (Comparative Lo-
calization Studies in the Brain Cortex, its Fundamentals Represented on
the Basis of its Cellular Architecture).
He died in Munich rather suddenly of a generalized septic infection fol-
lowing a pneumonia, barely under 50 years of age on August 22, 1918.

Sergei Korsakov
(1853-1900)
Korsakov was born in Russia, received most of his education there, but
he studied with Meynert in Vienna. In 1887 he earned a Ph.D thesis on
the Paralysis alcoholica. He is universally known for the disorder which
bears his name. Although he studied alcoholic polyneuritis with mental
symptoms, his Korsakov’s psychosis was the term used only when the
mental disorder was accompanied by neuritis symptoms.
Korsakov improved conditions in mental institutions. He was the first
great psychiatrist in Russia. He is considered a Moral Genius.
His contributions are not limited to the study of the disease that bears his
name but his work covered other topics of Psychiatry and Neurology.
He wrote on paranoia, as he described it in his textbook. His classifica-
tion of mental illeness is more complete and one of the most widespread
at that time. He described that the outcome of mental illenesses is de-
pending on the circumstances of the patient, treatment, the severity of
the disease, and the content in which it unfolds.
Korsakov founded the Society of Psychiatrist, Neuropathologists in
Mascow in 1890. He worked to form an association of Neurologists and
Psychiatrists of Russia at National Level. He died in the year 1900 at the
age of 46 after severe heart disease.

Alois Alzheimer
(1864-1915)
Alois Alzheimer was born in 1864 in Markbreit in Bavaria, Southern
Germany. Excelling in sciences at school, he studied medicine in Berlin,
commencing his education in psychiatry and neuropathology.Along with
Franz Nissl, a colleague at the asylum, Alzheimer spent the following
years working on a major six volume study, the Histologic and Histo-
pathologic Studies of the Cerebral Cortex, describing the pathology of
the nervous system. The work was finally published between 1907 and
1918.
It was in 1906 that Alzheimer gave a lecture that made him famous. In it,
Alzheimer identified an Unusual disease of the cerebral cortex which
affected a woman in her fifties,and caused memory loss, disorientation,
hallucinations and ultimately her death. The post-mortem showed vari-
ous abnormalities of the brain. The cerebral cortex was thinner than nor-
mal and senile plaque, previously only encountered in elderly people,
was found in the brain along with neurofibrillary tangles. Alzheimer had
access to a new stain and was able to identify these nerve tangles which
had never previously been described. Later, Kraepelin named the dis-
ease after Alzheimer.
Today, the pathological diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease is still gener-
ally based on the same investigative methods used in 1906. This is re-
markable compared with the development of investigative methods for
other diseases, and it speaks volumes about the quality of Alzheimer’s
discovery. He died in 1915 at the age of 51.

Dr. Herbert Y. Meltzer
(1938)
Dr. Herbert Y. Meltzer, one of the world’s leading authorities on the
treatment of schizophrenia. Meltzer’s particular interest is the treatment
of patients who have failed to respond to conventional treatments for
schizophrenia, depression and mania. He studied the role of dopamine
and serotonin in the etiology of schizophrenia and depression and the
mechanism of action of antipsychotic and antidepressant drugs. Dr.
Meltzer and his colleagues were particularly interested in testing the
hypothesis that particular subtypes of serotonin (e.g., 5-HT2A, 5-HT2C,
5- HT7) and dopamine (D2, D4) receptors are important in the mecha-
nism of action of atypical antipsychotic drugs.
Meltzer was one of the co-developers of clozapine, considered to be the
major advance in the treatment of schizophrenia in the past 40 years. He
postulated that one of its major sites of action is the serotonin system.
All previous anti-psychotic drugs primarily blocked the dopamine sys-
tem. It has also proved useful in addressing treatment-resistant mania
and depression. Complementary studies involving behavioral pharma-
cologic methods are used to determine the neural circuitry involved in
the action of these drugs.
Meltzer is professor of Psychiatry and Pharmacology at VUMC, and
is also director of the division of Psychopharmacology in the depart-
ment of Psychiatry

Charles Bradley
(1902–1979)
Charles Bradley was the first to use amphetamine for brain-damaged
and hyperactive children. He made this discovery while serving as Medi-
calDirector of the Emma Pendleton Bradley Home-now BradleyHospi-
tal-in East Providence, R.I. The Bradley Home-foundedby George Bra-
dley, Charles’s great-uncle, and named for George Bradley’s neurologi-
cally impaired daughter, Emma opened in 1931 to treat children with
nervous disorders. A year later, Charles Bradley, fresh out of his resi-
dency at Babies Hospital in New York, joined its staff.
Charles Bradley had more than one string in his bow. He invented a
chair to make pneumoencephalography in children easier,pioneered the
residential treatment of children with behavior disorders, wrote exten-
sively about childhood schizophrenia,and established the Bradley Home
as a center for treatment, research, and education in child psychiatry.
Bradley published his findings in 1950 after using Amphetamines for
2 decades to treat hyperactive, impulsivity and moodiness in clinically
referred children. He died in the year 1979.

David T Wong
(1940)
David Wong’s journey to become one of a team of scientists to revolu-
tionize the treatment of depression by developing the drug Fluoxetine
began at school in Hong Kong. With the encouragement of his parents,
he left Hong Kong for the United States, where he majored in chemistry
at Seattle Pacific University. He commenced graduate studies at Oregon
State University where he received his MS in biochemistry in 1964 and
obtained his doctorate in biochemistry at Oregon Health and Science
University in 1966, followed by postdoctoral training at the University
of Pennsylvania.
Wong joined Lilly Research Laboratories in 1968. In 1993 he was a
joint Recipient of the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association
Discoverer’s Award for his part in the discovery of Prozac, a drug that is
now used to treat millions of patients with depression. “Prozac was defi-
nitely a team effort. The collaborations between Ray Fuller and I led to
many successful projects besides the discovery of Prozac.
In the late 1970s, along with William Lacefield an Invention Disclosure
Memorandum, was led to co-inventorship of a US patent; and then in
the mid-1980s worked with David W. Robertson and synthesized new
molecules that resulted in the discoveries of Duloxetine.

Dr. Benjamin Rush
(1745-1813)
Benjamin Rush was born in the Township of Byberry in Philadelphia
County, His father died when he was, 6 years old. Rush spent most of his
early life with his maternal uncle. Rush lived in the state of Pennsylva-
nia and was a physician, writer, educator, and humanitarian, as well as
the founder of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.
Rush was far ahead of his time in the treatment of mental illness. In fact,
he is considered the Father of American Psychiatry, publishing the first
textbook on the subject in the United States, Medical Inquiries and Ob-
servations upon the Diseases of the Mind (1812).
Prior to his work, drunkenness was viewed as being sinful and a matter
of choice. Rush introduced the idea that the alcoholic loses control over
himself and identified the properties of alcohol, rather than the alcoholic’s
choice, as the causal agent. He developed the conception of addiction as
a form of medical disease and finally developed the idea that abstinence
is the only cure for addiction.
Rush is sometimes considered the father of therapeutic horticulture, par-
ticularly as it pertains to the institutionalized. His book Medical Inquir-
ies upon Diseases of the Mind was published in 1812.
Besides his contributions to psychiatry, Benjamin Rush wrote a descrip-
tive account of the yellow fever epidemic that struck Philadelphia in
1793. During his career, he educated over 3000 medical students, and
several of these established Rush Medical College (Chicago) in his honor
after his death.

Wilhelm Griesenger
(1817-1868)

Wilhelm Griesinger
(1817-1868)
Wilhelm Griesinger was a German neurologist and psychiatrist. He
studied under Johann Lukas Schönlein at the University of Zurich.
After receiving his doctorate Griesinger practiced medicine in several
locations. During his stay in Egypt, he gained experience regarding tropi-
cal diseases, and as a result published : Clinical and anatomical obser-
vations over the diseases of Egypt and Infections diseases in Berlin. He
established two influentual psychiatric journals, Medicinisch psycho-
logical society and The Archives for Psychiatry and Nervous Diseases.
His rational approach to psychology was epoch-making to how such
diseases were looked upon. He was the first who dared, and was able to,
introduce theoretical views on psychopathic behaviour into medicine, a
field until then badly neglected both by psychologists and pathologists.
We also owe to Griesinger the introduction into clinical psychiatry of
pathological anatomy. Griesinger is best remembered for his reforms
concerning the mentally ill and the asylum system. He believed in inte-
gration of the mentally ill into society, and proposed that short-term hos-
pitalization be combined with close cooperation of natural support sys-
tems. Today, the Wilhelm Griesinger Hospital in Berlin is named in honor
of him.
During the summer of 1868, he fell ill with the symptoms of a
paratyphlitis. Following his friend Roser’s opening of an abscess of the
right hypochondrium came wound diphteria, loss of strength, and pro-
gressive paralysis. Death occurred on October 26, 1868.

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