This document summarizes different types of landforms and waterforms on Earth. It describes the main landforms as continents, islands, highlands, mountains, hills, plateaus, plains, valleys and deserts. It provides details on specific landforms like Pangaea, Himalayas, and the seven continents. It also outlines the major waterforms like oceans, seas, gulfs, bays, lakes, rivers, and straits/canals. In summary, the document categorizes and explains the key physical features that make up the surface of the planet.

1. GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT

2. LANDFORMS
 LAND covers 29.2 percent of the Earth’s
surface. Most of the world’s people live on
about 10 percent of the earth’s land surface.
The earth’s landforms include the continents,
islands, highlands, and lowlands. The earth’s
surface is uneven, made up of landforms of
different elevations. The height land rises
above sea level is called elevation. A landform’s
height is measured from the sea level straight
up to the top.

3. TYPES OF LANDFORMS
 The Continents
 The Islands
 The Highlands
 Mountains
 The Hills
 Plateaus
 Plains and Valleys
 Grasslands
 Deserts

4. CONTINENTS
 The largest of the landmasses surrounded by
the rounded by the ocean.
 Most scientists believe that there’s only one
supercontinent called Pangaea.
 Most of the powerful nations are on the
continents of the Northern Hemisphere.

5. SEVEN CONTINENTS ON THE EARTH(ACCORDING
TO SIZES)
 Asia
 Africa
 North America
 South America
 Antarctica
 Europe
 Australia

6. PANGAEA
 Pangaea was a supercontinent that existed during the
late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras, forming approximately 300
million years ago. It began to break apart around 100 million years
after it formed. The single global ocean which surrounded Pangaea is
accordingly named Panthalassa.
 The name Pangaea is derived from Ancient Greek panmeaning
"entire", and Gaiameaning "Mother Earth".[ The name was coined
during a 1927 symposium discussing Alfred Wegener's theory
of continental drift. In his book The Origin of Continents and
Oceans (Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane), first published
in 1915, he postulated that prior to breaking up and drifting to their
present locations, all the continents had at one time formed a
single supercontinent which he called the "Urkontinent". Originally,
this theory was rejected because the predominant theory was that
the Earth was cooling and shrinking, with mountains being the last
regions to shrink.

8. CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
 is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to
each other by appearing to drift across the ocean
bed. The speculation that continents might have 'drifted'
was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. The
concept was independently and more fully developed
by Alfred Wegener in 1912, but his theory was rejected
by some for lack of a mechanism (though this was
supplied later by Holmes) and others because of prior
theoretical commitments. The idea of continental drift
has been subsumed by the theory of plate tectonics,
which explains how the continents move.

9. TECTONIC PLATES
 Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus,
from the Greek: τεκτονικός "pertaining to
building") is a scientific theory that describes the
large-scale motion of Earth's lithosphere. The
model builds on the concept of continental
drift which was developed during the first few
decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific
community accepted the theory after the concepts
of seafloor spreading were developed in the late
1950s and early 1960s.

10. ISLANDS
 The islands are landmasses completely
surrounded by water.
 They are smaller than continents.
 There are four types of island formation:
- atolls
- sandbars
- peninsulas
- isthmus

11. ATOLLS
 An atoll is a ring-shaped coral reef including a coral
rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely.
There may be coral islands/cays on the coral rim.

12. SANDBARS
 A shoal, sandbank, sandbar (or just bar in context),
or gravelbar — is a characteristically linear landform completely
within or extending into a body of water. It is typically composed
of sand, silt, and/or small pebbles.
 A spit—sandspit is a type of shoal.

14. PENINSULAS
 A peninsula (Latin: paeninsula from paene "almost"
and insula "island"; also called a byland or biland) is a
piece of land that is bordered by water on three sides
but connected to mainland. The surrounding water is
usually understood to belong to a single, contiguous
body. but is not always explicitly defined as such. A
peninsula can also be a headland (head), cape,
island promontory, bill, point, orspit. Note that a point is
generally considered a tapering piece of land projecting
into a body of water that is less prominent than a
cape. In English, the plural of peninsula is peninsulas or,
less commonly, peninsulae.

15. ARABIAN PENINSULA

16. ISTHMUS
 An isthmus (/ˈɪsθməs/ or /ˈɪsməs/;
plural: isthmuses;
from Ancient Greek: ἰσθμός isthmos “neck”) is a
narrow strip of land connecting two larger land
areas, usually with water on either
side. A tombolo is an isthmus where the strip of
land consists of a spit or bar.

17. THE NECK BRUNY ISLAND

18. HIGHLANDS
 The mountains, hills, and plateaus are known
as highlands. The mightiest mountains in the
world, the Himalayas, have high peaks which
are always capped with snow because of their
great height.
 The Himalayas are called the “Roof of the
World”

19. MOUNTAINS
 Mountains are masses of the land that rise
above the areas around them. Many come to a
point or peak.
 Mountains are a source of useful minerals such
as coal and iron ore.

20. MT. EVEREST

21. HILLS
 Hills, in general, are lower than mountains.
They are usually no higher than 1,000 feet
above sea level. More people live on hills than
on mountains because hills are lower and
flatter. It is easier to reach hills and make a
living on them.

22. CHOCOLATE HILLS

23. PLATEAUS
 Plateaus are landforms that rise sharply above
the land around them. Many are flat on top. In
the high latitudes, the plateaus are very cold.

25. PLAINS AND VALLEYS
 Plains are areas of broad lowlands. They are
never completely flat but slightly rolling. Most of
the world’s people lives on plains. Many plains
throughout the world have been formed by
large rivers. Many people live in these river
valleys because they are usually fertile.

26. GRASSLANDS
 There are four types of grasslands:
- prairies
- steppes
- pampas
- veld or velt

27. PRAIRIES
 Prairies (/ˈprɛəri/) are ecosystems considered
part of the temperate grasslands, savannas,
and shrublands biome by ecologists, based on
similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall,
and a composition of grasses, herbs, and
shrubs, rather than trees, as the dominant
vegetation type.

29. STEPPES
 a steppe (from Russian: степь, tr. step', IPA: [sʲtʲ
epʲ] ( listen), from Latin stipa) is an ecoregion,
in the montane grasslands and
shrublands and temperate grasslands,
savannas, and shrublands biomes,
characterized by grassland plains without trees
apart from those near rivers and lakes.

31. PAMPAS
 The Pampas (from Quechua pampa, meaning "plain")
are fertile South American lowlands, covering more than
750,000 km2(289,577 sq mi), that include
the Argentine provinces of Buenos Aires, La
Pampa, Santa Fe, Entre Ríos and Córdoba, most
of Uruguay, and the southernmost Brazilian State, Rio
Grande do Sul. These vast plains are a natural
region only interrupted by the low Ventana and Tandil
hills near Bahía Blanca and Tandil (Argentina), with a
height of 1,300 m (4,265 ft) and 500 m (1,640 ft)
respectively.

33. DESERTS
 Deserts are regions so dry that most people,
animals, and plants cannot live in them. Most
of the deserts are hot, burning areas covered
with sand hills called dunes. Large areas are
bare, rocky wastes. But not all deserts are hot.
Very few plants and animals can survive in
these regions because they are so cold and
covered with ice most of the time.

34. GOBI DESERT

35. WATERFORMS
 WATER covers three quarters (3/4) of the
earth’s surface. Among the earth’s bodies
water are the oceans, seas, lakes, gulf, bays,
and rivers. Water is an important and
practically all pervasive element in man’s
habitat. The combined areas of all bodies of
water add up to a total nearly three times that
of the land on earth.

36. OCEANS
 The oceans are the largest bodies of water on
earth. There are five interconnected oceans
which cover 70.8 percent of the water on the
earth’s surface.

37.  Pacific Ocean
 Atlantic Ocean
 Indian Ocean
 Antarctic Ocean
 Arctic Ocean

38. SEAS
 A sea is a large body of water almost
completely surrounded by land. The
Mediterranean Sea is one of the most
important seas which lies between Africa and
Eurasia.

39. MEDITERRANEAN SEA

40. GULFS
 A gulf is a large bay. It is sometimes difficult to
tell the difference between a gulf and a bay.
 However, larger areas of the ocean reach into
the land in the case of a gulf.

41. GULF OF MEXICO

42. BAYS
 A bay is a part of a lake or an ocean which
creates a semi-circular indentation along the
shore.
 Its water id quiet and free from strong currents
and makes a natural harbor.

43. LAGUNA DE BAY

44. LAKES
 A lake is completely encircled by land. Its coast
is called shores.
 Most lakes have fresh water, but lakes are
salty.
 Some lakes are very small but others are so
large that they are like inland seas.

45. CASPIAN SEA

46. RIVERS
 Rivers are formed by rainfall and melting snow.
They begin as small streams, or water running
downhill, which join forces with other streams
to become a river.

47. RIVER FORMATION

48. WORLD’S LONGEST RIVER
 Nile, Africa
 Amazon, South America
 Yangtze, Asia
 Mississippi-Missouri, North America
 Ob-Irtysh, Asia
 Huang-Ho, Asia
 Zaire, Africa
 Parana, South America
 Amur, Asia
 Lena, Asia

49. STRAITS AND CANAL
 Strait is a narrow body of water that connects
two large bodies of water.
 Canal a man-made strait.

50. STRAIT OF GIBRALTAR

51. SUEZ CANAL