AQA A2 Geography Case Studies (Development + Globalisation, Ecosystems and Tectonics)

Expanding Earth Theory
0 The expanding Earth or growing
Earth hypothesis asserts that the
position and relative movement of
continents is at least partially due to
the volume of Earth increasing.
Conversely, geophysical global
cooling was the hypothesis that
various features could be explained
by Earth contracting.
0 In 1889 and 1909 Roberto Mantovani published
a hypothesis of Earth expansion and continental
drift. He assumed that a closed continent
covered the entire surface of a smaller Earth.
Thermal expansion led to volcanic activity,
which broke the land mass into smaller
continents. These continents drifted away from
each other because of further expansion at the
rip-zones, where oceans currently lie. Although
Alfred Wegener noticed some similarities to his
own hypothesis of continental drift, he did not
mention Earth expansion as the cause of drift in
Mantovani's hypothesis.
0 A compromise between Earth-expansion and
Earth-contraction is the "theory of thermal
cycles" by Irish physicist John Joly. He
assumed that heat flow from radioactive decay
inside Earth surpasses the cooling of Earth's
exterior. Together with British geologist Arthur
Holmes, Joly proposed a hypothesis in which
Earth loses its heat by cyclic periods of
expansion. In their hypothesis, expansion led to
cracks and joints in Earth's interior, that could fill
with magma. This was followed by a cooling
phase, where the magma would freeze and
become solid rock again, causing Earth to
shrink.

Physical Factors Affecting an
Earthquake
Small Earthquake Factors Affecting Big Earthquake
Deep/ Intermediate
(70 –700km deep)
Depth of Focus
Shallow Focus (0-
70km deep)
Far away from it Epicentre Location Close to an area

Kashmir - 2005
0 Epicentre 80km North –East of
Islamabad
0 Magnitude 7.6 on the Richter scale
0 Depth of focus 10km deep
0 88,000 people dead, 70,000 people
injured and the earthquake affected 3.5m
people. 20th highest death toll ever
0 earthquake was strong enough to topple
a building 100km from the epicentre. To
add to this winter was approaching after
the earthquake. Freezing temperatures
of –15C to –20 and heavy snow in
highland areas meant that there was
more chances of diseases spreading and
aid workers found it difficult to get
through to these remote areas (e.g.
Neelum Valley).
0 80% of health facilities in the earthquake
struck region where destroyed.
0 Muzaffarabad a sports stadium is being
used to look after the homeless and
provide food and water.
0 Due to lack of recourses and shelter the
government had to distribute 350,000
tents, 3.2 million blankets and 3,000
tonnes of medicine.
0 The Pakistani government has
distributed $44milion to 379,600 people
to rebuild homes.
0 $4.5 billion dollars of International aid
was given to help relief efforts in the area
struck by the earthquake.
0 The UK government has provided £12
million to help the relief effort.
0 Pakistan’s Earthquake Reconstruction
and Rehabilitation Authority (Erra) has
been put in place.

Haiti 2010
0 The magnitude of the earthquake was actually
quite small, at only 7.0 on the Richter scale. In
comparison, The Japanese tsunami of 2011 had
bigger fore and aftershocks!
0 The epicentre was 15 miles or 20km from the
nation’s capital, port au Prince, and the
hypocentre or focus was very shallow at only
13km deep. Seismic waves started at a fault
line that was 10km in length.
0 200 years since the last major earthquake –
1755
0 V.Poor
0 38% of the population are under 14
0 Infant Mortality is 60/1000
0 Life expectancy was just 60
0 GDP was only $1,300
0 80% of the population lived below the
poverty line and
0 53% were literate
0 Geologist Paul Mann wrote a report in 2008 that
a major earthquake could happen here, and that
the damage could be catastrophic.
0 reliant on international aid for over 30% of
national GDP even before the earthquake.
0 50% of buildings collapsed due to cheap
construction methods
0 316,000 people died and more than a million
people were made homeless
0 It is estimated that 1 in 5 jobs were lost as a
result of the quake
0 The EU gave $330 million and the World Bank
waived the countries debt repayments for 5
years.
0 The Senegalese offered land in Senegal to any
Haitians who wanted it!
0 6 months after the quake, 98% of the rubble
remained uncleared
0 23 major charities, $1.1 billion had been
collected for Haiti for relief efforts, but only two
percent of the money had been released
0 Dwayne Wade donated $175000 as well as
other sport stars due to Haitian roots.

Kuril Islands 1963
0 The 1963 Kuril Islands earthquake occurred
at 05:17 UTC, on October 13. The
earthquake had a magnitude of 8.5 and was
followed by a Mw=7.8 event seven days
later. Both earthquakes triggered tsunamis
that were observed around the northern part
of the Pacific ocean.
0 The Kuril Islands form part of the island arc
formed above the subduction zone, where
the Pacific Plate is being subducted
beneath the Eurasian Plate. This
convergent boundary has been the site of
many large megathrust earthquakes.
0 No damage, deaths or injuries are recorded
for these two earthquakes or their
associated tsunamis. The tsunami triggered
by the earthquake of October 13, caused a
4.5 m wave locally. The tsunami was also
observed in Canada, Japan, Mexico,
Hawaii, Alaska, California and on many
islands across the northern Pacific Ocean.
The tsunami associated with the October 20
event was larger in the local area with a
maximum recorded run-up of 15 m at Urup,
but was only observed in the western part of
the northern Pacific
0 Also had another 8+ earthquake in 1994
0 The 2003 Colima earthquake occurred on
21 January 2003 and registered a
magnitude of 7.6 on the Richter scale. The
epicentre was located on the Pacific coast
in the Mexican state of Colima.
0 The 2003 Colima earthquake resulted in the
death of 29 people and 300 injured.
Additionally, approximately 10,000 were left
homeless as the earthquake destroyed
2,005 homes and seriously damaged 6,615.
Most of the deaths and damage occurred in
Villa de Álvarez, a city which borders the
northern part of the city of Colima.
Extensive damage (rating VIII) occurred in
the city of Colima and in Tecomán. Some
deaths and damage occurred in the states
of Jalisco and Michoacán and a few
buildings were damaged as far away as
Guanajuato and Morelos. The quake was
felt strongly (rating VI) in parts of Mexico
City
0 After the massive 1982 earthquake the
country which is often corrupted has set up
an effective earthquake management
group.
2003 Colima
earthquake

Izmit 1999 Earthquake
0 7.4 on Richter Scale
0 17 000 people were killed by the
disaster
0 A further 24 000 people were
injured, and 600 000 people were
made homeless
0 1000 aftershocks shook Izmit after
the quake.
0 60-70% of buildings near the plate
boundary collapsed.
0 Many of the builders and contractors who
built houses and other buildings in Izmit
took short cuts to save money and time.
0 The government regulations about
making sure buildings can withstand
earthquakes were often ignored in this
part of Turkey.
0 The quake sparked a disastrous fire at
the Tüpraş petroleum refinery & also a
Ford Plant there
0 Economic cost: $26 billion
0 The U.K announced an immediate grant
of £50,000 to help the Turkish Red
Crescent, while the International Red
Cross and Red Crescent pledged £4.5
million to help victims. Blankets, medical
supplies and food were flown from
Stansted airport. Engineers from Thames
Water went to help restore water
supplies. India also assisted by providing
32,000 tents and 2 million rupees to help
in the reconstruction process.

California
Earthquake Proof
0 California Memorial Stadium on the Hayward
fault. where right-lateral strike-slip motion is
shifting the northeast half of the building to the
southwest at a rate of 1.2 mm/yr. $14 million
renovation of sand foundation under a portion of
the stadium
0 Earthquakes have caused over $60 billion in
losses in California since 1971
0 All insurance companies that sell residential
property insurance in California are required by
law to offer earthquake insurance to
homeowners when the policy is first sold and
then every two years thereafter.
0 California Earthquake Authority (CEA)
insurance policies, which are designed to
rebuild your home if it suffers significant
damage from an earthquake.
0 2009, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger
promulgated the 2009 edition of the State of
California Emergency Plan
0 New buildings shorter than three stories are
required to have reinforced walls and foundation
slabs of a certain thickness
0 Mid-rise buildings, those up to 100 feet, require
much more-intensive engineering, while designs
for high-rise structures often employ innovative
earthquake-resistant designs that undergo
rigorous review by the country's top structural
engineers.
0 The most sophisticated systems employ fluid-
filled shock absorbers that slosh thick oil in the
opposite direction of any swaying. One of the
tallest buildings in Tokyo, the 781-foot Roppongi
Hills Mori Tower, included such a "semi-active
oil damper" design when completed in 2003.
0 2,200 people died in wood-and-tile homes
during the Kobe earthquake
0 That toll prompted the Japanese government to
launch an intensive research and retrofitting
program - called "Dai-Dai-Toku," or, roughly
translated, "very, very special" - to prevent a
similar catastrophe
Japan
Earthquake Proof

Japan tsunami
0 Japan was hit with a 9.0 magnitude
earthquake which then triggered a 23
foot tall tsunami
0 45,700 buildings were destroyed and
144,300 were damaged by the quake
and tsunami
0 98% of damage from the tsunami very
little effect from the earthquake
0 Whole population notified 1 minute
before quake
0 Tsunami wave height of 38.9 meters
(128 ft.) at Omoe peninsula, Miyako city,
Japan
0 over 1000 aftershocks since the
earthquake, with 80 registering over
magnitude 6.0 Mw and several of which
have been over magnitude 7.0 Mw
0 the disaster left 15,839 dead, 5,950
injured, and 3,642 missing. According to
the World Bank the estimates of the
damages are placed around $122 billion
and $235 billion. The Japanese estimate
costs to reach $309 billion making it the
world’s most expensive natural disaster
on record.
0 Japan government provided 15 trillion ¥
to help businesses and stabilise markets.
0 Have started to build the Great Wall of
Japan. A sea wall to prevent tsunamis.
230m long
0 Killed 2 people in California from the
resulting tsunami.
0 . Aid organizations both in Japan and
worldwide also responded, with the
Japanese Red Cross reporting $1 billion
in donations

Physical Factors Affecting an
Eruption
Small Eruption Factors Affecting Big Eruption
Basaltic Magma Type Andesitic/ Rhyolitic
Low Viscosity High
Low Silica Content High
Little violence; gas
escapes easily
Type of Eruption
Potentially explosive;
lava shatters into
pieces
Mainly Lava Material Erupted
Lava Bombs, ash,
dust
Regular can be
continuous
Frequency Long Dormant Periods

Mount Pinatubo
0 Mount Pinatubo had been dormant for
500 years. The first sign that this
situation might be changing occurred on
July 16, 1990 when a magnitude 7.8
earthquake
0 June 15th, the volcano exploded in a
massive eruption that ejected more than
5 cu. kms. of volcanic material. The ash
cloud from this huge eruption rose 22
miles (35 kms.) into the air. A blanket of
volcanic ash and larger pumice pebbles
blanketed the countryside. Fine ash fell
as far away as the Indian Ocean, and
satellites tracked the ash cloud several
times around the globe. Huge
avalanches of red hot ash, gas, and
pumice fragments called pyroclastic
flows roared down the sides of Mount
Pinatubo, filling the deep valleys with
fresh volcanic deposits as much as 660
ft. (200 m.) thick. The eruption removed
so much magma and rock from below
the volcano that the summit collapsed to
form a large volcanic depression or
caldera 1.6 miles (2.5 kms.) across.
0 847 People Killed - 300 from collapsing
roofs , 100 from the mud flows known as
lahars, the rest from disease in the
evacuation centres including measles
0 650,000 workers lost jobs
0 $700 Million Damages
0 1.2million people lost homes
0 Volcanic ash is blown in all directions
over hundreds of KMs, smothering fields
and buildings.
0 Global cooling caused by ash in the
atmosphere of 0.5°C
0 75,000 people were evacuated due to
accurate predictions. There was no
monitoring until the 3rd of April but
seismometers were put into place.
0 The United States Geological Service
helped to predict the disaster

Montserrat0 After a long period of dormancy (500 year), the
Soufriere Hills volcano became active in 1995, and
has continued to erupt ever since.
0 When pyroclastic flows and mudflows began
occurring regularly, the capital, Plymouth, was
evacuated, and a few weeks later a pyroclastic flow
covered the city in several metres of debris.
0 2/3 of the island was covered in ash
0 A second large eruption on 25 June 1997 resulted in
the deaths of nineteen people. The island's airport
was directly in the path of the main pyroclastic flow
and was completely destroyed
0 The governments of the United Kingdom and
Montserrat led the aid effort, including a £41 million
package provided to the people of Montserrat;
however, riots followed as the people protested that
the British Government was not doing enough to aid
relief. The riots followed a £10 million aid offer by
International Development Secretary Claire Short,
prompting the resignation of Bertrand Osborne, then
Chief Minister of Montserrat after allegations of
being too pro-British and not demanding a better
offer.
0 About 7,000 people, or two-thirds of the population, left
Montserrat; 4,000 to the United Kingdom
0 The volcano has become one of the most closely
monitored volcanoes in the world since its eruption
began, with the Montserrat Volcano Observatory
taking detailed measurements and reporting on its
activity to the government and population of
Montserrat. The observatory is operated by the British
Geological Survey under contract to the government of
Montserrat
0 Located in Southern Chile
0 In May 2008, Chaitén began erupting violently, producing numerous
plumes, pyroclastic flows, minor earthquakes and lahars. It produced
a high Plinian eruption. Chaitén was classified as a VEI of 4. By late
May the lava eruptions had created a new dome of 540,000m2
containing 55million m3 of material.
0 Chile only has 20 volcanoes with completed geological studies, 7
which have had hazard assessments and 7 more that are monitored.
Chaitén was classified as a low threat volcano, but even without this
low rating there is only one volcano observatory in all of Chile. USGS
didn’t start monitoring until after eruption.
0 The town of Chaitén, located about 10 kilometres southwest of the
eruption site, was blanketed with ash. About 4,000 people who lived
there were evacuated by boat.
0 The ash plume was so thick in some parts of Argentina that schools,
highways and airports were forced to close. Indeed, Chaitén was a
major concern to both the airline industry and the neighbouring
country of Argentina
0 90% of Chaitén was flooded due to increased flows
0 80-90% of the town of Chaitén reported damaged,
0 The Chilean Navy had managed to evacuate 3900 people initially and
emergency measures included the following; not to drink the water,
they distributed face masks and fresh water, ordered a 50km
exclusion around the town, issued a monthly disaster grant of $1200
and $2200 per month per family as well as a freeze on payment of
existing loans on the state bank Banco Estado to aid businesses in
trouble
0 The long term response to this eruption was that Chile's geological
survey (the Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, or
SERNAGEOMIN) created a new program to improve monitoring and
hazard mitigation at 43 of Chile's high-threat volcanoes. The program
will support studies of the history of eruptions at these volcanoes,
assessments of volcanic hazards, and the creation of a real-time
monitoring network and early warning system.
Chaitén

Eyjafjallajökull (E15)
0 Seismic activity started at the end of 2009 and
gradually increased in intensity until on 20 March
2010, a small eruption started rated as a 1VEI
0 Britain had fine anticyclonic weather for a lot of the
time that the Ash cloud existed. This was a problem
because winds would have dispersed the cloud better.
0 The other complicating factor is that the volcano is
covered by the Eyjafjallajökull glacier. This caused a
flood (a jökulhlaups - glacier outburst flood) on the
14th of April, when an eruption partly melted a glacier
and set off a major flood which prompted authorities to
order 700 people to evacuate. This flood had huge
discharges of 2000-3000 m3/sec
0 The volcano also emitted lava from a 500m long
fissure, spewing the 1,000°C lava 150m into the air.
The volcano was classified with a VEI of 4, with
greater than 1.4 ± 0.1 x 107 m3 (100 million cubic
meters) of lava erupted and > 1.4 x 108 m3
(1,000million cubic meters!) of Tephra erupted. It was
also categorised as both a fissure and explosive
eruption
0 From 14–20 April, ash covered large areas of northern
Europe when the volcano erupted. About 20 countries
closed their airspace to commercial jet traffic and it
affected more than 100,000 travellers.
0 IATA stated that the total loss for the airline industry
was around US$1.7 billion (£1.1 billion, €1.3 billion
0 Following Air France-KLM's and British Airways'
requests to the European Union, and additionally in
the latter's case to the British government, for
compensation, Gordon Brown announced that the EU
Solidarity fund, designed to aid EU member states in
the event of large-scale disasters, could be a possible
source of compensation)
0 Beginning on 14 April 2010, the eruption entered a
second phase and created an ash cloud that led to the
closure of most of the European IFR airspace from 15
until 20 April 2010. Consequently, a very high
proportion of flights within, to, and from Europe were
cancelled, creating the highest level of air travel
disruption since the Second World War. The second
phase resulted in an estimated 250 million cubic
metres (330,000,000 cu yd.) (0.25 km3) of ejected
tephra and an ash plume that rose to a height of
approximately 9 kilometres (30,000 ft.), which rates the
explosive power of the eruption as a 4 on the Volcanic
Exclusivity Index. By 21 May 2010, the second
eruption phase had subsided to the point that no
further lava or ash was being produced.
0 By the evening of 6 June 2010, a small new crater had
opened up on the west side of the main crater.
Explosive activity from this new crater was observed
with emission of small quantities of ash. Seismic data
showed that the frequency and intensity of earth
tremors still exceeded the levels observed before the
eruption, therefore scientists at the Icelandic
Meteorological Office and the Institute of Earth
Sciences, University of Iceland (IES) continued to
monitor the volcano.
0 Effects on Economies:
0 EU- weren’t able to send manufactured goods,
BMW, FedEx food and flowers and other fresh
goods lost
0 ROW- Kenya is reported to have destroyed 400
tonnes of flowers it was unable to airship into the
UK . As a result, their economy was estimated to
be incurring losses of $3.8m each day of the
disruption. Many lost jobs.

Etna
0 The eruption in 1991 started on 14th December
and lasted for 473 day
0 The lava flowed down the SE flank of the
volcano into the Valle del Bove The acidic lava
had a low effusion rate (rate and volume of lava
emitted in m³/sec)which posed very little threat
to human life
0 The UN has classified it as a Decade Volcano
due to its activity and nearby population
0 Supports rich agricultural land and it is
estimated that 35% of Sicily’s population live on
its slopes.
0 Since 2001, it has seen an eruption every year.
0 It is well monitored and actively managed. 77
deaths can be attributed to eruptions on Mount
Etna.
0 The majority were caused when visitors strayed
into hazardous areas, such as the nine tourists
killed in September 1979 near Bocca Nuova by
a phreatic explosion,
0 In the last 20 years, all deaths on Etna have
been due to lightening strikes and accidents.
0 The eruptions of 2002 completely destroyed the
tourist station at Piano Provenzana and part of
the tourist station around the Rifugio Sapienza
on the south side of the volcano. It took the lava
two weeks to reach the station. On July 29th
airports of Catania were closed due to ash and
the winter tourist industry was affected badly.
0 In most instances locals have rebuilt their own
properties from salvaged materials or relocated
elsewhere, and government intervention has
been rare.
0 One intervention occurred in 1991-3 when
Zafferana was threatened by a lava flow. Initial
attempts proved unsuccessful when hastily built
earth barriers were surmounted. Instead,
explosives were detonated to disrupt and
redirect the flow and break up the efficient lava
tubing system which had guided it 7km
downslope. Later in 2002, dams of soil and
volcanic rock were put up to protect the tourist
base at Rifugio Sapienza and helped divert the
flow. The Army’s heavy earth-moving equipment
was also brought in to block the flows. The
Italian government pledged immediate financial
assistance to losses in tourism and agriculture
of more than £5.6m and tax breaks for villagers
0 The Catania Section of the Instituto Nazionale
di Geofiisica e Vulconalogia (INGV) has
monitored the volcano for 20 years with a
permanent network of remote sensors (seismic,
gedetic, magnetic, gravimetric and videos)
connected in real time, radio and by mobile
phone, to the acquisition centre.

Hawaii0 Encompassing more than 50 percent of Hawaii's Big
Island, the active volcano of Mauna Loa is one of
the most imposing land masses on earth. Measuring
from the sea floor, Mauna Loa rises 56,000 feet
above its base. One of the planet's most active
volcanoes, Mauna Loa has wrought destruction
through the ages. Although this "Long Mountain"
hasn't erupted since 1884
0 A very active volcano, it has produced large,
voluminous flows of basalt (very fluid, dark lava) that
have reached the ocean eight times since 1868. It
last erupted in 1984, when a lava flow came within
7.2 km (4.5 miles) of Hilo, the largest population
centre on the island.
0 Since 1843, Mauna Loa has erupted 33 times,
averaging one eruption every 5 years.
0 the Island of Hawaii is the fastest growing region in
the State of Hawai‘i, with more than 100,000
residents and a population that grew by 24 percent
in the past decade. High levels of interest and
affordable land lead to developmental pressures,
which means that more and more construction will
occur on the flanks of the island’s volcanoes.
0 This rapid growth includes several multimillion-dollar
developments built or proposed on the slopes of
Mauna Loa in Waikoloa, Hilo, and Hawaiian Ocean
View Estates—the last is the Nation’s largest
development in terms of area. Between 1984, the
most recent eruption of Mauna Loa, and 2002,
approximately $2.3 billion were invested in new
construction on the flanks of the volcano.
0 The USGS’s Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO)
has recently upgraded its monitoring networks to
improve its ability to detect early unrest. Numerous
seismic, GPS, and tilt stations across the flanks of
Mauna Loa keep a vigilant eye on the mountain 24
hours a day. When unrest is detected, scientists
notify emergency-management officials and
increase monitoring efforts
0 The greatest direct hazards associated with shield
volcanoes are the lava flows and emissions of
volcanic gases. Although these seldom cause
deaths, lava flows typically do extensive damage by
covering, burning, and crushing everything in their
path. Basalt flows can travel more than 50 km from
their vent, making most communities on the Island
of Hawai‘i susceptible to lava-flow inundation. And
gas emissions can be carried by the wind and reach
other islands in the State, producing human health
concerns and damaging crops and livestock.
0 The whole island is zoned,
0 Management
0 Deformation, they check the summit
deformation. This monitoring has gone on
since the 1970s, although at times it has
decreased in size, the general trend is a
2cm/year increase in the size, probably due to
an increase in lava.
0 Seismicity, Since 2005, seismic activity has
been near background levels, with an average
of two earthquakes per month. Before Mauna
Loa's next eruption becomes imminent, we
expect that rates of shallow seismicity will
elevate to levels much higher than those
currently observed.
0 Monitoring volcanic gases can provide clues
about the internal workings of an active
volcano. So, in 2005, HVO installed two gas
monitors atop Mauna Loa: a fixed-view
ultraviolet spectrometer system and a real-time
ambient gas monitor.

Millennium Development Goals:
UAE
0 The UAE has been very impressive as by 2007 it
had already completed most of the goals and
started to implement more goals to beat. The
government has focused on raising the level of
education, health care and social welfare services.
It has adopted a number of policies to diversify and
increase income, including: allocating farmland to
farmers of limited income; supporting agriculture;
providing interest-free loans to small and medium
enterprises; distributing highly subsidized or free
housing; giving fishermen financial and material
support; and providing citizens and economic
utilities with water and electricity services at
subsidized prices.
0 One of the main reasons the country had been able
to achieve these goals is in part due to urban
planning. 84% of the country live in urban areas
which allows them to have greater access to
services such as health and education but it also
means that they are more likely to be hooked up to
electricity and also to clean water.
0 One of the biggest issues is that the UAE needs
diversify its sources of income and expand the
production base, so as not to depend on oil
production and exports; and to further activate the
role of the private sector as a partner in the
development process. This could become a much
larger issue in the future as their oil reserves start
to dry up and so developing a private sector is
important. Especially as how successful the country
has been about catering to Western Culture
compared to other countries in the Middle East has
encouraged a lot of development from business
trying to move into the Middle Eastern Market.
Goal Achieved Stats To Back it up
Eradicate extreme
poverty and hunger
Yes
Achieve universal
primary education
Yes
 Net enrolment ratio in primary education (%
both sexes): 95.1
 Percentage of pupils starting Grade 1 and
reach Grade 5 (% both sexes): 99.1
Promote gender
equality and
empower women
Yes
 Gender parity Index in primary level
enrolment (ratio of girls to boys): 1.0
 Literacy rates of 15-24 years old (% both
sexes): 97.7
 Seats held by women in national parliament
(%): 22.5
Reduce child
mortality
Yes
 Mortality rate of children under 5 years old
(per 1,000 live births): 8
 1-year-old children immunized against
measles (%): 92
Improve maternal
health
Yes
 Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 births):
37
Combat HIV/AIDS,
malaria and other
diseases
Yes
 People living with HIV,15-49 yrs. old (%):
0.2%
 Prevalence of tuberculosis (per 100,000
people): 24
Ensure
environmental
sustainability
Yes
 Land area covered by forest (%): 3.7
 Carbon dioxide emissions per capita (metric
tons): 37.7966
 Access to improved drinking water sources (%
of total population): 100
Develop a global
partnership for
development
Insufficient Evidence  Internet users (per 100 people): 36.7

South Korea
Demographic
Population 48,955,203
Dependency Ratio 37.1%
Pop Growth 0.18%
Life Expectancy 79.55
Social
Urbanisation 83.2%
Literacy Rates 97.7%
HIV prevalence <0.1%
Pop Below poverty line 16.5%
Economic
Unemployment 9.6%
GDP Growth 2%
GDP per capita $32,300
Inflation 2.2%
1970s
Rural & Social Development. Due to large inequality between
rural and urban areas the government implemented a new tax
policy similar to England to redistribute income in the two areas.
‘Barnett Formula’
1980s
Economic change. The market changed from a closed system
looking out to a more open market with easy access especially
from the outside such as a reduction on foreign tariffs and also of
government intervention. This was in conjunction with the early
growth of the RIC’s who had lower wages which was very
appealing to foreign companies.
Investment in education & skills. A way to allow for the
manufacturing of more high tech goods, as a way to keep
domestic brands such as Samsung and LG in the country instead
of exporting their manufacturing.
1990s
Economic Downturn. The Asian Financial crisis of 1997 started
after the collapse of the Thai Baht (currency), which caused many
western countries and businesses to lose confidence in the area.
Wasn’t helped as the biggest importer in the area also had a
recession which heavily reduced the demand for Asian products.
This saw many criticise the previously heavily government run
markets which left companies with a limited knowledge of world
markets. However did have a positive as it later saw a reduced
value of its currency which made it cheaper to import South
Korean goods which saw demand increase.
Now
South Korea has a market economy which ranks 15th in the world
by nominal GDP and 12th by purchasing power parity (PPP),
identifying it as one of the G-20 major economies. Trade Balance
of $29.79bn
1960s
Export Led Growth. Encouraged all businesses to focus on
exporting their goods, due to a larger and more stable market.
They did this due to a weak currency meant that foreign
countries could buy more of their exports as it was cheaper.
Subsidies to further reduce the prices of their goods. Tariffs on
raw material imports were reduced to further bring down the
costs of production. They also stabilised relations with Japan
and a large and near market they could easily expand to.
Improvements in Infrastructure. Grants were given to firms to
buy machinery to expand production. Improved the transport
inside of the country, not only allowed the goods to be
transported easier but also the workforce.
FDI was encouraged by the government with all of their
subsidies and tariff reductions also allowed to new businesses.
Many Chaebols started up, large enterprises with multiple areas
of production such as Daewoo & Hyundai.

0 ExxonMobil is the largest of the world's
supermajors (Also known as Big Oil" it is
used to describe the world's five or six
largest publicly owned oil and gas
companies; BP, Chevron Corporation, Royal
Dutch Shell and Total SA) with daily
production of 3.921 million BOE. In 2008,
this was approximately 3 percent of world
production, which is less than several of the
largest state-owned petroleum companies.
When ranked by oil and gas reserves, it is
14th in the world
0 They are the world's third largest company
by revenue; ExxonMobil is also the second
largest publicly traded company by market
capitalization. The company was ranked No.
5 globally in Forbes Global 2000 list in
2013. ExxonMobil's reserves were 72 billion
BOE (barrels of oil equivalent) at the end of
2007. With 37 oil refineries in 21 countries
constituting a combined daily refining
capacity of 6.3 million barrels, ExxonMobil is
the largest refiner in the world.
0 2012 profit of $44.9B
0 All-time annual earnings record for any
company, of $45.2 billion before recession.
It then halved the next year.
0 The core of Exxon Mobil’s business is oil
and gas. Petroleum is mostly sold through
Exxon’s/Esso’s service stations of which
they have 45,000 in 118 countries. Aviation
fuel is sold at more than 700 airports in 80
countries, and ExxonMobil Marine Fuels
serves more than 300 ports in 70 countries.
They are the world’s largest non-
governmental marketer of equity natural
gas. It is also the world’s leading marketer
of finished lubricants, using the brand name
Mobil and the world’s largest wholesaler of
helium. Exxon Chemical products include
plastics, oriented polypropylene film,
synthetic rubber, fluids, plasticizers, basic
chemical building blocks such as ethylene,
ethylene glycol, propylene and paraxylene,
fuel and lubricant additives and synthetic
lubricant base stock.
0 Worldwide it employs over 100,000 people.
They pay different amounts to their staff
depending on their job. The CEO Rex
Tillerson earns $25m a year (2011),
whereas a cashier at one of their US gas
stations earns $8.45 an hour.
0 It mainly grew around the world to get
different resources as well as to supply
around the world.

China0 China’s economy is predicted to overtake the US
economy in GDP by 2020.
0 Biggest Manufacturing producer in the world.
0 The non-democratic and authoritarian political
regime in China has meant that it has been possible
to embrace western-style free market economics
while maintaining control over the political system.
In many ways, the planned economy of China
(where the state controls economic activity rather
than private business) has accelerated economic
growth because the government has controlled all
decision-making.
0 China first began moving away from a centrally
planned economy towards a market-oriented system
in 1978. Deng Xiaoping was Mao’s successor and
he sought to bring an end to China’s relative
economic isolation.
0 This is the strategy which China initially pursued.
The strategy is beginning to become phased out in
favour of Import Substitution Industrialisation.
0 Followed USSR 5 year plans to encourage
production rates. (12th 5 year plan aims to grow
GDP by 8% annually, also remove variations in
living and reduce population growth)
0 Average yearly salary is under $8k a year
0 77% of woman in workforce
0 6 SEZs or 14 Open Cities. These are designated
zones where TNCs are offered incentives such as
reduced tax rates to set up manufacturing
operations. An example is a Taiwanese TNC,
EUPA, which manufactures coffee machines in
Xiamen (an Open City) and employs 25,000
workers.
0 6 SEZs or 14 Open Cities. These are designated
zones where TNCs are offered incentives such as
reduced tax rates to set up manufacturing
operations. An example is a Taiwanese TNC,
EUPA, which manufactures coffee machines in
Xiamen (an Open City) and employs 25,000
workers.
0 Since the 1990s China has been developing its
energy base, with new hydroelectric and nuclear
power plants.
0 The government has built many new roads,
improved the rail system and made China’s major
rivers navigable all year round. It has also
encouraged urbanisation.
0 95% literacy levels – 600,000 new engineers each
year
0 China has started to globalise economically by
buying up foreign companies. In fact, in 2010 China
invested $56bn in in outward FDI. With inward FDI
averaging some $60bn per year, China is poised to
turn from a net recipient to a net investor in FDI, a
marker of its economic maturity in many respects.
0 China has a great wealth of natural resources,
having vast reserves of coal, oil and natural gas.
These are being used to fuel the industrial
development of the country

India
0 The Economy of India is the 8th-largest in the
world by nominal GDP and the third-largest by
purchasing power parity. India is one of the
fastest developing economic Superpower with
potential to become world third largest
economy(nominal gdp) by 2020.The country is
one of the G-20 major economies and a
member of BRICS. According to the IMF. India
is the 16th-largest exporter and the 8th-largest
importer in the world
India Economy Stats
GDP $2.13t (8th)
GDP per capita $1.7k (135th)
Below Poverty 21.9%
Labour Force by occupation
agriculture: 51.1%, industry:
22.4%, services: 26.6% (2012
est.)
Unemployment 3.8%
Average Salary $1,580
Exports $312b
Imports $451b
Public Debt 67% of GDP
0 During the year 2011, FDI inflow into India stood
at $36.5 billion, 51.1% higher than 2010 figure
of $24.15 billion. India has strengths in
telecommunication, information technology and
other significant areas such as auto
components, chemicals, apparels,
pharmaceuticals, and jewellery. Despite a surge
in foreign investments, rigid FDI policies were a
significant hindrance.
0 Goldman Sachs predicted that "from 2007 to
2020, India's GDP per capita in US$ terms will
quadruple", and that the Indian economy will
surpass the United States (in US$) by 2043. In
spite of the high growth rate, the report stated
that India would continue to remain a low-
income country for decades to come but could
be a "motor for the world economy" if it fulfils its
growth potential.
0 74% Literacy rate
0 High levels of corruption on all scales

Brazil
0 Brazil has the seventh largest economy by nominal GDP in
the world, and seventh largest by purchasing power parity.
The Brazilian economy is characterized by moderately free
markets and an inward-oriented economy.
0 Brazil’s economy is the largest of the Latin American nations
and the second largest in the western hemisphere. Brazil is
one of the fastest-growing major economies in the world with
an average annual GDP growth rate of over 5 percent. In
future decades, Brazil is expected to become one of the five
largest economies in the world
0 The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 67.0
percent, followed by the industrial sector at 27.5 percent.
Agriculture represents 5.5 percent of GDP (2011). Brazilian
labour force is estimated at 100.77 million of which 10 percent
is occupied in agriculture, 19 percent in the industry sector
and 71 percent in the service sector.
0 The Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious
program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum.
Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the
country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in
2006-2007. Brazil is one of the world's leading producers of
hydroelectric power, with a current capacity of about 260,000
megawatts. Existing hydroelectric power provides 90 percent
of the nation's electricity
0 In the last decade, domestic production increased by 32.3
percent and agribusiness (agriculture and cattle-raising),
which grew by 47 percent or 3.6 percent per year, was the
most dynamic sector – even after having weathered
international crises that demanded constant adjustments to
the Brazilian economy. The Brazilian government also
launched a program for economic development acceleration
called Programa de Aceleração do Crescimento, aiming to
spur growth.
0 Dubai's gross domestic product as of 2008 was US $82.11 billion The
International Herald Tribune has described it as "centrally-planned free-
market capitalism."[ Dubai's economy was initially built on revenues from
the oil industry, revenue from petroleum and natural gas currently account
for less than 2% of the emirate's gross domestic product. Dubai became
important ports of call for Western manufacturers. Most of the new city's
banking and financial centres were headquartered in the port area. Dubai
maintained its importance as a trade route
0 Today, Dubai has focused its economy on tourism by building hotels and
developing real estate. Port Jebel Ali, constructed in the 1970s, has the
largest man-made harbour in the world, but is also increasingly developing
as a hub for service industries such as IT and finance, with the new Dubai
International Financial Centre.
0 Dubai is stepping up its efforts to improve energy efficiency, while boosting
the role played by renewable resources in meeting demand
0 Dubai has teamed up with the Environmental Centre for Arab Towns, a
research institute, in a bid to drive down energy usage by 20% over the
next three years. Its efforts also include a plan to cut CO2 emissions by
6200 tonnes annually.
0 Dubai is greatly dependent on the availability of cheap energy, and its per
capita consumption of energy is amongst the highest in the world. Cheaply
available oil is used to desalinize the water that irrigates the lush tropical
landscapes implanted in its desert, and that supports the water-spending
habits of its leisure tourism and residents. It is used to air-condition its
massive interior spaces during the gruellingly hot summer months. It is
used to run motor vehicles in a city designed exclusively for automobiles
(which increasingly are stuck in traffic) and not for pedestrians.
0 As global warming is becoming a more serious and real threat to the
livelihood of the planet, there is a rising awareness that such a lifestyle that
is dependent on an intensive consumption of fossil fuels may not be
sustainable. Dubai's coastal location and low-lying reclaimed land mean it
is at increased risk from flooding as sea-levels rise.
0 The city's location requires an almost total dependency on medium-haul air
travel to survive, most visitors coming from Europe and India.
Dubai

LDCBasic Facts
0 50 Least Developed Countries (34 in Africa, 14 in Asia and the Pacific
Region, 1 in Western Asia – Yemen, 1 in the Caribbean – Haiti)
Economic Growth
0 Since 2001, LDCs have generally grown faster than other developing
countries.
0 In 2004, LDCs saw the fastest annual growth rate (6%) in four
decades.
Debt Relief
0 Total debt burden for LDCs increased to a record $158.9 billion in
2003, up $20.8 billion from 2001.
0 13 LDCs were chosen to receive 100% cancellation under the
Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative effective July 2006.
0 An additional 9 LDCs have been recommended for such debt relief.
Foreign Direct Investment
0 Foreign direct investment (FDI) in LDCs increased from $6.8 billion in
2001 to a record $10.7 billion in 2004. However, FDI in LDCs
accounted for only 1.6% of world FDI inflows.
Trade
0 Exports of LDCs increased from $45.9 billion in 2003 to $57.8 billion in
2004. The 4 largest oil exporting
0 LDCs (Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Sudan, and Yemen) accounted for
56% of that increase.
0 The share of LDC exports was a meagre 0.6% of world merchandise
exports in 2004.
Poverty
0 Almost 50% of the population in LDCs lives on less than $1 a day.
0 Rates of undernourishment over 40% reported in 10 LDCs.
Aid
0 Total ODA to LDCs from developed countries increased from $12.4
billion in 2000 to $23.5 billion in 2004.
0 Almost 90% of aid was provided in grants and 86% of aid to LDCs was
untied by 2004.
0 36% of all aid was directed to the social sector.
0 Of 22 donors, 7 met the 0.20% target for ODA to LDCs as a share of
their GNI in 2004. 2 more reached 0.15%.
Infrastructure and Communication
0 In 2004, only 4 LDCs met the target of five telephone lines per 1,000
inhabitants by 2010.
0 Only 4 LDCs reported the extensive use of railways for freight in 2004.
0 In 2000, there were only 7 LDCs with one or more Internet connections per
100 inhabitants. In 2006, use has grown by 3 to 10 times although still
below 1 per 100 in 25 LDCs.
0 Road length has been increased by at least 20% since 1990 in 13 LDCs.
Education
0 Universal primary enrolment in primary education has improved.
0 The target of 50% adult literacy by 2015 has been met for women in 26 of
33 LDCs with data. For men, the target has been met in only 10 of 32 LDCs
with trend data.
Population
0 Average annual population growth in LDCs is 5%, the highest in the world,
compared to developing countries (1.2%).
0 Annual fertility rate in LDCs is at 5 children per woman compared to an
average of 2.6 in the rest of the world.
0 Over 40% of LDC population is under 15 years compared to 28% in
developing countries.
0 Average life expectancy is the lowest in the world (51 years), compared to
65 years in industrialized nations.
Health
0 Maternal mortality in the LDCs remains the highest (890 deaths per
100,000 live births) in the world.
0 Under five mortality rate is 160 deaths per 1,000 live births compared to 86
in the rest of the world.
0 2.1 million new TB cases were reported in 2004, mainly as a result of
HIV/AIDS.
0 Rate of new HIV/AIDS cases (3.2%) in LDCs remains the highest in the
world.
Malaria (Reduction in malaria prevalence in 15 LDCs but deterioration in 13
among 30 LDCs with trend data.)
Water (Only 58 % of the population in LDCs has access to improved water.)
Slums (Nearly 140 million people in LDCs live in poor housing conditions.)

EU
0 The EU was created in the aftermath of the Second World War. The
first steps were to foster economic cooperation: the idea being that
countries who trade with one another become economically
interdependent and so more likely to avoid conflict. The result was the
European Economic Community (EEC), created in 1958
0 The EU has delivered half a century of peace, stability and prosperity,
helped raise living standards, and launched a single European
currency, the euro.
0 The single or 'internal' market is the EU's main economic engine,
enabling most goods, services, money and people to move freely.
Another key objective is to develop this huge resource to ensure that
Europeans can draw the maximum benefit from it.
0 U’s main goals is to promote human rights both internally and around
the world. Human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of
law and respect for human rights (Lisbon Treaty)
0 The economy of the European Union generates a GDP of over
€12.894 trillion (US$16.566 trillion in 2012) according to Eurostat,
which makes it the largest economy in the world if treated as a single
economy
0 Reasons for this massive growth include government commitments to
stable monetary policy, export-oriented trade policies, low flat-tax
rates and the utilisation of relatively cheap labour
0 The European Union is the largest exporter in the world and as of
2008 the largest importer of goods and services. Internal trade
between the member states is aided by the removal of barriers to
trade such as tariffs and border controls. In the Eurozone, trade is
helped by not having any currency differences to deal with amongst
most members.
0 The European Union Association Agreement does something similar
for a much larger range of countries, partly as a so-called soft
approach ('a carrot instead of a stick') to influence the politics in those
countries.
0 The services sector is by far the most important sector in the
European Union, making up 69.4% of GDP, compared to the
manufacturing industry with 28.4% of GDP and agriculture with only
2.3% of GDP.
0 It is an economic and political agreement among Argentina,
Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela; with Bolivia
0 The bloc comprises a population of more than 270 million
people, and the combined Gross Domestic Product of the full-
member nations is in excess of US$3.0 trillion a year according
to IMF numbers, making Mercosur the fifth-largest economy in
the World. It is the fourth-largest trading bloc after the European
Union
0 The working of Mercosur has not met with universal approval
within interested countries. Chile has to a certain extent
preferred to pursue bilateral agreements with trading partners
0 The free transit of produced goods, services and factors among
the member states. Among other things, this includes the
elimination of customs rights and lifting of nontariff restrictions
on the transit of goods or any other measures with similar
effects on it
0 Fixing of a common external tariff and adopting of a common
trade policy with regard to non-member states or groups of
states, and the coordination of positions in regional and
international commercial and economic meetings (Mercosur
have signed free trade agreements with Israel, Egypt & the
State of Palestine)
0 Coordination of macroeconomic and sectorial policies of
member states relating to foreign trade, agriculture, industry,
taxes, monetary system, exchange and capital, services,
customs, transport and communications, and any others they
may agree on, in order to ensure free competition between
member states;
0 The commitment by the member states to make the necessary
adjustments to their laws in pertinent areas to allow for the
strengthening of the integration process.
Mercosur

NAFTA
0 It is an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States,
creating a trilateral rules-based trade bloc in North America
0 The goal of NAFTA was to eliminate barriers with trading and
investment between the U.S., Canada and Mexico. The
implementation of NAFTA on January 1, 1994 brought the immediate
elimination of tariffs on more than one-half of Mexico's exports to the
U.S. and more than one-third of U.S. exports to Mexico. Within 10
years of the implementation of the agreement, all U.S.-Mexico tariffs
would be eliminated except for some U.S. agricultural exports to
Mexico that were to be phased out within 15 years. Most U.S.-Canada
trade was already duty-free. NAFTA also seeks to eliminate non-tariff
trade barriers and to protect the intellectual property right of the
products.
0 Canada received a modest positive economic benefit as measured by
GDP2008 alone, Canada exports to the United States and Mexico
were at $381.3 billion, and imports from NAFTA were at $245.1 billion
0 Maquiladoras (Mexican factories that take in imported raw materials
and produce goods for export) have become the landmark of trade in
Mexico. These are plants that moved to this region from the United
States, hence the debate over the loss of American jobs. The overall
effect of the Mexico–U.S. agricultural agreement is a matter of dispute.
Mexico did not invest in the infrastructure necessary for competition,
such as efficient railroads and highways, which resulted in more
difficult living conditions for the country's poor. Mexico's agricultural
exports increased 9.4 percent annually between 1994 and 2001, while
imports increased by only 6.9 percent a year during the same period
0 The U.S. Chamber of Commerce credits NAFTA with increasing US
trade in goods and services with Canada and Mexico from $337 billion
in 1993 to $1.2 trillion in 2011, while the AFL-CIO blames the
agreement for sending 700,000 American manufacturing jobs to
Mexico over that time.
0 It is an international organization whose mission is to
coordinate the policies of the oil-producing countries. The
goal is to secure a steady income to the member states
and to secure supply of oil to consumers
0 Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. Later it
was joined by nine more governments: Libya, United Arab
Emirates, Qatar, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador & Angola.
0 OPEC's ‘Policy Statement' states that there is a right of all
countries to exercise sovereignty over their natural
resources.
0 OPEC is a swing producer and its decisions have had
considerable influence on international oil prices. For
example, in the 1973 energy crisis some OPEC members
refused to ship oil to western countries that had supported
Israel in the Yom Kippur War, which Israel had fought
against Egypt and Syria. This refusal caused a fourfold
increase in the price of oil, which lasted five months,
starting on 17 October 1973, and ending on 18 March
1974. OPEC nations then agreed, on 7 January 1975, to
raise crude oil prices by 10%.
0 despite technological advances that increase the
productivity of oil wells, the rate of decline of oil fields will
eventually increase as time continues
0 According to current estimates, more than 81% of the
world's proven oil reserves are located in OPEC
countries
0 However not all key oil producing countries are part of the
group. The USA & Russia are huge producers but haven't
joined. This can also mean that at times OPEC may try to
underpin the other two countries oil prices to reduce
demand for their product.
OPEC

0 Since independence in 1971, Bangladesh
has received more than $22 billion in grant
aid and loan commitments from foreign
donors, about $15 billion of which has
been disbursed. Major donors include the
World Bank, the Asian Development Bank,
the UN Development Program, the United
States, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and a
number of West European countries. As of
1991, the United States had provided
more than $3.3 billion in food and
development assistance. Food aid
provides food, promotes production, and
helps stabilize prices. Other US programs
target family planning and health,
agricultural development, and rural
unemployment. In 1991, the US forgave
Bangladesh $293 million of development
assistance debt.
0 Bangladesh historically has run a large
trade deficit, about $1.5 billion annually
during the late 1980s. This was financed
largely through foreign assistance. The
balance of payments swung into surplus in
1990-91 because of increased exports of
garments and depressed domestic
demand for imports. In recent years,
remittances from workers in the Middle
East have been Bangladesh's most
important source of foreign exchange
earnings. The US trade balance with
Bangladesh has been negative since
1986, due largely to imports of ready-
made garments.
Trade Aid
• Trade has a long-term impact upon
international co-operation. Developing
countries maintain trade relationship
with other countries to develop on-
going trading relationship. This will
eventually help to flow money and
goods in the developing countries,
irrespective of the economical condition
of the developed country. In contrast, if
the developed country goes through a
bad economic time, the aid budget may
be cut.
• Trade helps developing countries to
maintain their dignity, whereas aid is
more or less related to the act of getting
approval and support from the
developed countries. It can be treated as
a form of charity, where the developing
countries need to admit the superiority
of the developed country.
• Trade establishes a strong impression in
the international market, whereas the
country administering aid is considered
as an unimpressive country.
• Trade promotes economical
improvement of the country, but in the
event, if aid is mishandled, then the
people of the country will be deprived
from getting the benefits and eventually
obstruct the growth of the country.
• Aid is given to a country to be well
apportioned against their need. On the
other hand, trade is treated as an
inefficient distributor of resources. The
benefit of trade is mostly confined
within elite group of people of the
country.
• Aid is not always provided in the form of
money and is sometimes provided
through expert advisors. On the other
hand, trade needs a good infrastructure
of the country to prosper. It is very
difficult for the developing countries to
maintain a good infrastructure.
• Aid allows for money in a given country
to be allocated well against need.
• Exposing fragile developing economies
to free trade is very risky.
• Trade requires investment first.
Bangladesh Trade vs. Aid

Mamirauá
0 In the year 2000 about 1,530,000 hectares of forest
was managed through these “simplified
management plans” in the Brazilian Amazon, which
represented less than 1% of the region’s total area.
Most of these initiatives were made viable starting in
the 1990’s with support from the government and
civil society organizations; the Mamirauá
Sustainable Development Reserve
0 In the past three decades, the Amazon lost almost
600 thousand km2. By 2001, this represented a total
loss of 13.31% of the original forested area due to
through expansion of the agricultural frontiers and
predatory economic extraction by logging
companies
0 The Mamirauá Project combines researchers,
extension workers and local community members,
working together. Approximately 20 researchers,
various specialists in ecology, social science and
the management of natural resources, from many
regions of Brazil and abroad
0 Town not joining in is called Nazareth
0 At most a successful ecotourism project could yield
at most $7 per acre much less lucrative than logging
or alternative forms
Strengths Weaknesses
Opportunities Threats

Sand Dunes0 The south east Purbeck National Nature Reserve (NNR) covers an
area of 631 hectares and comprises of a variety of habitats which
include five kilometres of beach, dunes, woodland, bogs and lowland
heath. In fact this is one of the largest tracts of heathland in southern
Britain with all six species of British reptiles present with nightjars and
Dartford warblers as well as the carnivorous plant the sundew and the
globally rare masonry wasp.
0 The area of Studland heath has only been present during the last six
hundred years where the accumulation of sand started to build up
along the coast of south haven point. This process extended the
expanse of dunes due mainly to marram grass stabilising the dunes
enriching the soil and facilitating the area for the succession of heaths
and woodland.
0 Studland beaches are one of the most popular beaches in Britain at
any one time in summer there can be as many as 25,000 people on
the beach a day, evidently there is an impact.
0 A wide sandy beach of Studland Bay forms the eastern seaward side
of the South Haven Peninsula. Onshore easterly winds, especially
during storms can blow the sand inland. The source of the sand is the
sand bottom of Poole Bay. The sand gets trapped on the shoreline by
driftwood and subsequently by vegetation which stabilises the embryo
dune and dunes are simply accumulations of sand grains, shaped
into mounds or ridges by the wind under the influence of gravity.
0 Until thickly vegetated, dunes are a very fragile environment, and
heavy use - through recreation, for example - may cause the break-
up of the roots, ultimately causing the destruction of the dune system.
They are, therefore, a very dynamic system.
0 As time goes by so the type of vegetation changes and more advance
and less adapted plants can colonise the areas. The pioneer plants
and add humus which can hold moisture and nutrients. The pioneer
plants become out competed and so gradually give way to others.
This process of change is called succession. This process of
succession in a sand dune system is called a psammosere.

Northern Uplands
Regeneration Project

Amazonia0 Amazonia is located either side of the equator in South
America and stretches from the eastern slopes of the
Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. It occupies
68% of Brazil, and smaller parts of surrounding
countries
0 About 80% of Amazonia is rainforest; the rest is
composed of seasonally flooded swamp forest and
cleared, or cultivated, land
Biome Characteristic
Climate
Hot with temperatures between 25 and
27°C and rainfall averages 2677mm of
precipitation.
Fauna
300 birds, 428 amphibians, 427
mammals, 378 reptile species, and 3000
types
of fish.
Soil
Red Latosoils due to lots of leaching
leaving behind iron
Biomes
80% of Amazonia is rainforest;
the rest is composed of seasonally
flooded swamp forest and cleared,
or cultivated, land
Adaptations
Amazonia, because of its equatorial
position, receives high levels of solar
energy throughout the year which leads
to high rates of photosynthesis and lots of
biomass. This together with a warm, wet
climate encourages luxuriant growth.
Adaptations
Trees
Canopy trees have umbrella shaped crowns to
maximise exposure to sunlight, large leaves to
maximise photosynthesis, Leaves are dark green in
colour and have a thick cuticle and waxy surface to
help shed rainfall and provide protection against
strong solar rays. Tree bark is thin (1–2mm) because
protection is not needed against low temperatures or
high water loss.
Epiphytes
They are plants that use tree branches for support, but
do not feed off their hosts. Instead their aerial roots
extract moisture from the air and trap dead leaves and
insects.
Lianas
They are large, rooted, woody
vines which use trees to gain access
to sunlight and produce fruit and
flowers in the canopy. The plants bind themselves to
trees using hooks.
Parasitic
plants
They which live on other living organisms occur on the
floor of the rainforest, where low light levels limit
photosynthesis
Animals
• strong, large, lightweight bills to prise open fruit and
crack seeds, eg the toucan
• specially developed hands and feet which can cling
to branches, eg the sloth has an opposable thumb
• prehensile tails to facilitate easy movement through
the canopy, eg spider monkey
• mimicry, eg the false-leaf katydid looks like a leaf
• thick, scaly skin, eg the armadillo
• bright colours, eg the poison dart frog
• nocturnal habits, eg the kinkajou

Blue Loop
0 The Blue Loop is a continuous loop
of waterways and riverside
walkways in the heart of Sheffield,
made up of The River Don and
Tinsley Canal. It travels for 8 miles
from the city centre and flows close
by the communities of Burngreave,
Attercliffe, Darnall and Tinsley.
0 Sheffield’s industrial past caused
badly polluted waterways unable to
provide homes for wildlife. Today,
water quality in Sheffield is much
improved and the Blue Loop has
become a haven for wildlife, with
fish, kingfishers and otters all
thriving in the area. Sheffield’s
waterways are one of the city’s
most valuable wildlife assets.
0 The Process has also increased
biodiversity in the city by adding a
habitat for fish, butterflies,
dragonflies, herons, kingfishers,
grey wagtail, ducks, moorhens,
coots, otters, Japanese knotweed,
water vole, kestrel, bats and
reptiles & amphibians.
0 Surrey is divided in two by the largely chalk ridge of the North
Downs, running east-west. The ridge is pierced by the rivers the
Wey and the Mole, which are tributaries of the Thames
0 Flora naturally present from west to east comprise mixed
woodland and meadow; continuing where the band of loam
continues to Farnham, but between this and the river floodplain,
Bagshot Sands is now covered by acid heathland increasingly
moving west, rising to gentle hills. In this band are the well-
maintained sites of biodiversity and woodland such as managed
by Surrey Wildlife Trust as well as government and groups who
help to manage Chobham and Horsell commons, St Anne's Hill,
Fetcham and Weyside meadows, Esher and Oxshott Commons
and Princes Coverts west of the Chessington outspur of Greater
London, east of this, wooded Epsom with Ashtead Commons
and Banstead Common and Downs.
0 Much of Surrey is in the Metropolitan Green Belt. It contains a
good deal of mature woodland. Its natural beauty spots with
widest panoramas include Box Hill, Leith Hill, Frensham Ponds,
Newlands Corner and Puttenham & Crooksbury Commons, part
of the Hog's Back. Surrey is the most wooded county in
England, with 22.4% coverage compared to a national average
of 11.8% and as such is one of the few counties not to include
new woodlands in their strategic plans. Box Hill has the oldest
untouched area of natural woodland in the UK, one of the oldest
in Europe. Surrey also contains England's principal
concentration of lowland heath, on the sandy soils in the west of
the county mentioned above.
Surrey
Biodiversity

Serengeti, Tanzania
Heading Info
Geographical
A UNESCO conservation area and World Heritage Site. Close to Kenya it covers over 2 million ha and consists of
savannah grasslands and volcanic uplands. The Serengeti plains harbour the largest remaining unaltered animal
migration in the world . The volcano Ol Doinyo Lengai is one of the only volcanoes to erupt carbonite lavas making it an
incredibly rare habitat.
Biodiversity
The ecosystem supports 2 million wildebeests, 900,000 Thomson’s gazelles and 300,000 zebras as the dominant herds.
Other herbivores include 7,000 elands, 27,000 topis, 18,000 hartebeests, 70,000 buffalos, 4,000 giraffes, 15,000
warthogs, 3,000 waterbucks, 2,700 elephants, 500 hippopotamuses, 200 black rhinoceroses, 10 species of antelope and
10 species of primate. Major predators include 4,000 lions, 1000 leopards, 225 cheetahs, 3,500 spotted hyenas and 300
wild dogs
Sustainable
Lifestyle
The Maasai people had been grazing their livestock in the open plains for around 200 years when the first European
explorers visited the area. To preserve wildlife, the British evicted the resident Maasai from the park in 1959 and moved
them to the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. There is still considerable controversy surrounding this move, with claims
made of coercion and deceit on the part of the colonial authorities
Tourism
The park is Tanzania's oldest national park and remains the flagship of the country's tourism industry, providing a major
draw to the Northern Safari Circuit encompassing Lake Manyara National Park, Tarangire National Park, Arusha National
Park, and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. 350,000 visitors a year.
Management
since 2009 funds have been allocated to demarcate the entire boundary. Its management is regulated by both
international and government policies and legal obligations. The National Parks Ordinance Cap 412 of 1959 provides for
Tanzania National Parks with the mandate to manage the site. In addition, The 1974 Tanzanian Wildlife Conservation Act
and the 2009 Wildlife Conservation Act provide for both within the site and adjacent area protection of resources,
respectively
Funds generated at Serengeti (US$ 22.4 million in 2009/10) have been used to strengthen protection and management of
the park, as well as other Tanzanian parks.
Threats
Development of road and other infrastructure corridors, Water shortage, Commercial poaching for trophies, Subsistence
poaching, Tourism infrastructure development, Tourist numbers, distribution and carrying capacity, Fire, Disease
transmission from domestic animals, Invasive alien species, Human-wildlife conflict, Insufficient funding for management,
Change of land-use in adjacent areas, Climate change & Insufficient regional and international collaboration

AQA A2 Geography Case Studies (Development + Globalisation, Ecosystems and Tectonics)

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