From Thomas Hobbes we have the first political philosophy in the English language. Called "Father of Atheists," he was the first person to "scientifically" argue for human equality!

1. Hobbes
Justice & Power, session v

2. Hobbes
Justice & Power, session v

3. Topics in This Session
i. Introduction
ii.Wars of Religion & Early Stuarts
iii.Hobbes
iv.Leviathan, 1651
v.Criticism

4. Introduction

5. Introduction

6. Thomas Hobbes, 1588-1679, Leviathan, 1651
Little more than a century separates Machiavelli and our next
philosopher, Thomas Hobbes. The epicenter of Western
Civilization has moved westward from Greece to Italy, and now
to England•. T major phenomena which were only beginning
wo
during the final years of Machiavelli’s life are of prime
significance for Hobbes and all the thinkers who follow: the
Reformation and the Scientific Revolution.

7. Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup
of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of
discovery which the printing press•

8. Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup
of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of
discovery which the printing press•

9. Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup
of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of
discovery which the printing press• and the voyages to the New
World fostered.

10. Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup
of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of
discovery which the printing press• and the voyages to the New
World fostered. Both were bitterly resisted as intolerable
challenges to the status quo. Both ushered in the conditions
which we take for granted in America: no one “owns” the truth;
ultimately, the individual is responsible for his own beliefs. The
awesome power represented by knowledge is not a state
monopoly administered by the state religion. Hobbes became
an enthusiastic student of “the new learning.” He discussed his
views with such luminaries as Francis Bacon• and Galileo.

11. Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup
of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of
discovery which the printing press• and the voyages to the New
World fostered. Both were bitterly resisted as intolerable
challenges to the status quo. Both ushered in the conditions
which we take for granted in America: no one “owns” the truth;
ultimately, the individual is responsible for his own beliefs. The
awesome power represented by knowledge is not a state
monopoly administered by the state religion. Hobbes became
an enthusiastic student of “the new learning.” He discussed his
views with such luminaries as Francis Bacon• and Galileo. His
efforts to develop theories of human behavior which didn’t
require a theological foundation and his willingness to engage in
academic disputes earned him the epithet “father of atheists.”

12. Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup
of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of
discovery which the printing press• and the voyages to the New
World fostered. Both were bitterly resisted as intolerable
challenges to the status quo. Both ushered in the conditions
which we take for granted in America: no one “owns” the truth;
ultimately, the individual is responsible for his own beliefs. The
awesome power represented by knowledge is not a state
monopoly administered by the state religion. Hobbes became
an enthusiastic student of “the new learning.” He discussed his
views with such luminaries as Francis Bacon• and Galileo. His
efforts to develop theories of human behavior which didn’t
require a theological foundation and his willingness to engage in
academic disputes earned him the epithet “father of atheists.”

13. Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup
of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of
discovery which the printing press• and the voyages to the New
World fostered. Both were bitterly resisted as intolerable
challenges to the status quo. Both ushered in the conditions
which we take for granted in America: no one “owns” the truth;
ultimately, the individual is responsible for his own beliefs. The
awesome power represented by knowledge is not a state
monopoly administered by the state religion. Hobbes became
an enthusiastic student of “the new learning.” He discussed his
views with such luminaries as Francis Bacon• and Galileo. His
efforts to develop theories of human behavior which didn’t
require a theological foundation and his willingness to engage in
academic disputes earned him the epithet “father of atheists.”

14. In an influential twentieth century study, The Structure of
Scientific Revolution, Thomas S. Kuhn• describes what he calls
“dominant paradigms.”

15. In an influential twentieth century study, The Structure of
Scientific Revolution, Thomas S. Kuhn• describes what he calls
“dominant paradigms.” Every period operates with a
characteristic way of perceiving reality, according to Kuhn. This
“dominant paradigm” is embodied in an unquestioned, tacit
understanding widely shared and transmitted, not by overt
“teaching” but by the type of models which people use to
conceptualize everyday tasks. Hobbes’ age was the time when a
traditional, organic paradigm was being replaced by a largely
mechanical one as being the more useful image to have of the
universe. Perhaps man is not the “political animal” of Aristotle.
Perhaps he is a robot capable of a wholly mechanical
explanation, if only we give the scientist enough data.

16. Hobbes lived during the final years of the Wars of Religion.
Like all the men we will study, his interest was not narrowly
focused on politics. Although most widely recognized today as
a defender of absolutism, he is ironically the first writer to argue
“scientifically” that all men are equal. The violence of his age
should give us empathy for his stress on the primacy of order in
society. A fitting tribute to his significance is given by William
Ebenstein: “The Leviathan is not an apology for the Stuart
monarchy, nor a grammar of despotic government, but the first
general theory of politics in the English language.” (Great
Political Thinkers, p. 358).

17. Hobbes lived during the final years of the Wars of Religion.
Like all the men we will study, his interest was not narrowly
focused on politics. Although most widely recognized today as
a defender of absolutism, he is ironically the first writer to argue
“scientifically” that all men are equal. The violence of his age
should give us empathy for his stress on the primacy of order in
society. A fitting tribute to his significance is given by William
Ebenstein: “The Leviathan is not an apology for the Stuart
monarchy, nor a grammar of despotic government, but the first
general theory of politics in the English language.” (Great
Political Thinkers, p. 358).

18. Hobbes use of language is reminiscent of Shakespeare’s. For
both you must read carefully and be aware that meanings of
some words have changed since the seventeenth century. T to
ry
savor the irony and force which Hobbes achieves when he
practices economy and careful choice of words. As you
compare his conclusions with those of the three we have
already studied, consider also how he has arrived at these
views. How does he argue for them? Does he make his case?

19. Wars of Religion
&
Early Stuarts

20. Wars of Religion
&
Early Stuarts

21. II. Wars of Religion, 1524-1648; and Early Stuarts, 1603-49.
A. James I, 1603-25
1. Spanish Armada, 1588
a. “Fear and I were twins.”
b. Elizabethan Settlement
2. Church of England
a. sovereignty and prerogative
b. divine right of kings
c. Guy Fawkes, November 5, 1605
d. King James Version (KJV), 1611
e. C. of E., Anglican, Episcopalian
3. a. Puritans, Congregationalists
b. Calvinists, Presbyterians, and Covenanters
c. Independents
d. Fifth Monarchy Men
B. the Continent
C. Charles I, 1625-49
D. Interregnum, 1649-60

22. James Stuart
James VI of Scotland,1567-1625
James I of England, 1603-1625
When the Virgin Queen, Elizabeth I
died, the Act of Settlement brought
her Protestant nephew, son of
Catholic Mary Queen of Scots, to
the throne

23. II.A.1.a. “Fear and I were twins.”
The portrait was made in approximately 1588 to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (depicted in the
background). Elizabeth I's international power is reflected by the hand resting on the globe

24. II.A.1.a. “Fear and I were twins.”

25. II.A.1.b. Elizabethan Settlement

26. Church of
England
sovereignty
prerogative
divine right of kings
“No bishop, no king”-James I
Westminster Abbey
West Side

28. Detail from a contemporary engraving of the Gunpowder Plotters. The Dutch artist probably never actually saw or
met any of the conspirators, but it has become a popular representation nonetheless.

29. “Remember, remember
the Fifth of
November…”

31. AV or KJV
1611

32. Established Church = C. of E., Anglican, (Episcopal)
Non-conformists or Dissenters
Puritans, Congregationalists
Calvinists, Presbyterians, Covenanters
Independents
Fifth Monarchy Men

33. II. Wars of Religion, 1524-1648; and Early Stuarts, 1603-49.
A. James I, 1603-25
B. the Continent
1. France under Richelieu
2. Thirty Years War, 1618-48
C. Charles I, 1625-49
1. Petition of Right, 1628
2. Personal Rule, 1629-40
a. Hampden and Ship Money, 1637
b. Bishop’s War, 1638-40
3. Parliaments
a. Short, 1640
b. Long, 1640-48
c. Rump, 1648-53
d. Bare-bones, 1659-60
D. Interregnum, 1649-60
1. Oliver Cromwell; Lord Protector, 1653-58
2. New Model Army and the Rule of Saints
3. Restoration, 1660

37. II. Wars of Religion, 1524-1648; and Early Stuarts, 1603-49.
A. James I, 1603-25
B. the Continent
1. France under Richelieu
2. Thirty Years War, 1618-48
C. Charles I, 1625-49
1. Petition of Right, 1628
2. Personal Rule, 1629-40
a. Hampden and Ship Money
b. Bishop’s War, 1638-40
3. Parliaments
a. Short, 1640
b. Long, 1640-48
c. Rump, 1648-53
d. Bare-bones, 1659-60
D. Interregnum, 1649-60
1. Oliver Cromwell; Lord Protector, 1653-58
2. New Model Army and the Rule of Saints
3. Restoration, 1660

38. 1625-at his father’s death,
Charles inherited a furious
Parliament. Franco-Spanish war
1628-he submitted to the
Petition of Right-no taxes
without Parliament’s approval
bitter at this check on his
prerogative, Charles dismissed
Parliament, vowing never to call
them again
Charles I
he vowed to raise what he
1600 – 1649
needed by “creative” fiscal
Portrait by Anthony van Dyck, 1636 policy

39. Victorians chose him as the figure who
inspired the English Revolution
1634-Charles began collecting a
medieval levy called ship money to
avoid having to reconvene Parliament
1637-Hampden led the opposition to
this “end run” by refusing to pay
he lost his case but became the
leader of the Parliament men’s
opposition
“Would the payment of Ship Money
have made Hampden a pauper? No,
but the payment of it, because it was John Hampden
demanded, would have made him a 1595 – 1643
slave.”--Edmund Burke, 1794 as depicted in the 1851
Illustrated London Reading Book

40. Victorians chose him as the figure who
inspired the English Revolution
1634-Charles began collecting a
medieval levy called ship money to
avoid having to reconvene Parliament
1637-Hampden led the opposition to
this “end run” by refusing to pay
he lost his case but became the
leader of the Parliament men’s
opposition
“Would the payment of Ship Money
have made Hampden a pauper? No,
but the payment of it, because it was John Hampden
demanded, would have made him a 1595 – 1643
slave.”--Edmund Burke, 1794 as depicted in the 1851
Illustrated London Reading Book

41. Victorians chose him as the figure who
inspired the English Revolution
1634-Charles began collecting a
medieval levy called ship money to
avoid having to reconvene Parliament
1637-Hampden led the opposition to
this “end run” by refusing to pay
he lost his case but became the
leader of the Parliament men’s
opposition
“Would the payment of Ship Money
have made Hampden a pauper? No,
but the payment of it, because it was John Hampden
demanded, would have made him a 1595 – 1643
slave.”--Edmund Burke, 1794 as depicted in the 1851
Illustrated London Reading Book
Statue of John Hampden in Market Square, Aylesbury

42. religious passions fueled the English Civil War.
The Established church faced a variety of
Dissenters
1638-Laud and Charles decided to crack down
on the Scottish Presbyterians with a new
prayerbook
1638-40--the resulting Bishop’s War produced
two symbols: the Covenant & the fiery cross
its financial burden forced Charles to call
Parliament back into session
1640-appalled by the rebellious nature of the
men elected, Charles dismissed them and
called for new elections--the so-called Short
Parliament
William Laud
Archbishop of Canterbury
the new election produced an even more
1573 –1633- 1645 militant Long Parliament and the stage was set
Portrait by Anthony van Dyck, 1636 for war. East Anglican Oliver Cromwell

43. religious passions fueled the English Civil War.
The Established church faced a variety of
Dissenters
1638-Laud and Charles decided to crack down
on the Scottish Presbyterians with a new
prayerbook
1638-40--the resulting Bishop’s War produced
two symbols: the Covenant & the fiery cross
its financial burden forced Charles to call
Parliament back into session
1640-appalled by the rebellious nature of the
men elected, Charles dismissed them and
called for new elections--the so-called Short
Parliament
William Laud
Archbishop of Canterbury
the new election produced an even more
1573 –1633- 1645 militant Long Parliament and the stage was set
Portrait by Anthony van Dyck, 1636 for war. East Anglican Oliver Cromwell

44. religious passions fueled the English Civil War.
The Established church faced a variety of
Dissenters
1638-Laud and Charles decided to crack down
on the Scottish Presbyterians with a new
prayerbook
1638-40--the resulting Bishop’s War produced
two symbols: the Covenant & the fiery cross
its financial burden forced Charles to call
Parliament back into session
1640-appalled by the rebellious nature of the
men elected, Charles dismissed them and
called for new elections--the so-called Short
Parliament
William Laud
Archbishop of Canterbury
the new election produced an even more
1573 –1633- 1645 militant Long Parliament and the stage was set
Portrait by Anthony van Dyck, 1636 for war. East Anglican Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell c. 1649 by Robert Walker

45. The trial of Charles I,
20-29 January 1649

46. The trial of Charles I,
20-29 January 1649

48. The trial of Charles I,
20-29 January 1649
Charles’ beheading
January 30, 1649

49. Cromwell dismisses the Rump , 1653
"[Cromwell] commanded the Speaker to leave the Chair, and told them
they had sat long enough, unless they had done more good, crying out
You are no longer a Parliament, I say you are no Parliament. He told Sir
Henry Vane he was a Jugler [sic]; Henry Martin and Sir Peter Wentworth,
that they were Whoremasters; Thomas Chaloner, he was a Drunkard; and
Allen the Goldsmith that he cheated the Publick: Then he bid one of his
Soldiers take away that Fool's Bauble the mace and Thomas Harrison
pulled the Speaker of the Chair; and in short Cromwell having turned
them all out of the House, lock'd up the Doors and returned to Whitehall."
Thomas Salmon in his Chronological Historian (London, 1723, 106
“You have sat too long for any good you have been doing lately ...
Depart, I say; and let us have done with you. In the name of God, go!”

50. Hobbes

51. Hobbes

52. III. Hobbes
A. Early Years
1. Parson Hobbes
2. Magdalen College, Oxford
3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire
a. the Grand Tour, 1610
b. patronage
B. Scientific Revolution
1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo
2. induction: Francis Bacon
3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes
a. doubt, cogito ergo sum
b. analytic geometry
c. deductive system building
C. Hobbes turns to science

53. Parson Hobbes
“an impecunious vicar and something of a
“character”--Ebenstein
“after a Saturday evening at cards, he fell asleep
in the pulpit, awoke with the cry “clubs is trump!”
after brawling with a fellow clergyman outside his
church, he abandoned his wife and three
children
Hobbes (jr.) was raised by his maternal uncle, a
glover, who fostered his precocity
read and wrote at four
Greek and Latin at six
Oxford at fifteen Thomas Hobbes, Sr.
(stock image)

54. III. Hobbes
A. Early Years
1. Parson Hobbes
2. Magdalen College, Oxford
3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire
a. the Grand Tour, 1610
b. patronage
B. Scientific Revolution
1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo
2. induction: Francis Bacon
3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes
a. doubt, cogito ergo sum
b. analytic geometry
c. deductive system building
C. Hobbes turns to science

55. Paris, 1610
Although King Henry IV was a man of kindness, compassion and
good humor, and was much loved by his people, Henry was the
subject of attempts on his life by Pierre Barrière in August 1593
and Jean Châtel in December 1594.
He was ultimately assassinated in Paris on 14 May 1610 by a
Catholic fanatic, François Ravaillac, who stabbed the king to
death in Rue de la Ferronnerie, while his coach's progress was
stopped by traffic congestion for the Queen's coronation
ceremony, as depicted in the engraving by Gaspar Bouttats.
Wikipedia

56. Paris, 1610
Although King Henry IV was a man of kindness, compassion and
good humor, and was much loved by his people, Henry was the
subject of attempts on his life by Pierre Barrière in August 1593
and Jean Châtel in December 1594.
He was ultimately assassinated in Paris on 14 May 1610 by a
Catholic fanatic, François Ravaillac, who stabbed the king to
death in Rue de la Ferronnerie, while his coach's progress was
stopped by traffic congestion for the Queen's coronation
ceremony, as depicted in the engraving by Gaspar Bouttats.
Wikipedia

57. Paris, 1610
Although King Henry IV was a man of kindness, compassion and
good humor, and was much loved by his people, Henry was the
subject of attempts on his life by Pierre Barrière in August 1593
and Jean Châtel in December 1594.
He was ultimately assassinated in Paris on 14 May 1610 by a
Catholic fanatic, François Ravaillac, who stabbed the king to
death in Rue de la Ferronnerie, while his coach's progress was
stopped by traffic congestion for the Queen's coronation
ceremony, as depicted in the engraving by Gaspar Bouttats.
Wikipedia

58. Paris, 1610
Although King Henry IV was a man of kindness, compassion and
good humor, and was much loved by his people, Henry was the
subject of attempts on his life by Pierre Barrière in August 1593
and Jean Châtel in December 1594.
He was ultimately assassinated in Paris on 14 May 1610 by a
Catholic fanatic, François Ravaillac, who stabbed the king to
death in Rue de la Ferronnerie, while his coach's progress was
stopped by traffic congestion for the Queen's coronation
ceremony, as depicted in the engraving by Gaspar Bouttats.
Wikipedia

59. III. Hobbes
A. Early Years
1. Parson Hobbes
2. Magdalen College, Oxford
3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire
a. the Grand Tour, 1610
b. patronage
B. Scientific Revolution
1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo
2. induction: Francis Bacon
3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes
a. doubt, cogito ergo sum
b. analytic geometry
c. deductive system building
C. Hobbes turns to science

60. III. Hobbes
A. Early Years
1. Parson Hobbes
2. Magdalen College, Oxford
3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire
a. the Grand Tour, 1610
b. patronage
B. Scientific Revolution
1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo
2. induction: Francis Bacon
3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes
a. doubt, cogito ergo sum
b. analytic geometry
c. deductive system building
C. Hobbes turns to science

61. III. Hobbes
A. Early Years
1. Parson Hobbes
2. Magdalen College, Oxford
3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire
a. the Grand Tour, 1610
b. patronage
B. Scientific Revolution
1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo
2. induction: Francis Bacon
ΑΓΕ$ΜΕΤΡΗΤΟΣ ΜΗΔΕΙΣ ΕΙΣΙΤ$
3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes
AGEŌMETRĒTOS MĒDEIS EISITŌ
a. doubt, cogito ergo sum
LET NO ONE UNTRAINED IN GEOMETRY ENTER
b. analytic geometry
MOTTO OVER THE GATEWAY TO PLATO’S
ACADEMY
c. deductive system building
C. Hobbes turns to science

62. III. Hobbes
A. Early Years
1. Parson Hobbes
2. Magdalen College, Oxford
3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire
a. the Grand Tour, 1610
b. patronage
B. Scientific Revolution
1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo
2. induction: Francis Bacon
3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes
a. doubt, cogito ergo sum
b. analytic geometry
c. deductive system building
C. Hobbes turns to science

63. Galileo & heliocentrism
1543-Copernicus had feared to publish
during his lifetime
1600-Dominican friar Giordano Bruno was
burned at the stake for his Copernican
views

64. Galileo & heliocentrism
1543-Copernicus had feared to publish
during his lifetime
1600-Dominican friar Giordano Bruno was
burned at the stake for his Copernican
views
1610- “Starry Messenger” published the
observations Galileo had made with his
telescope
Venice 1610

65. Galileo & heliocentrism
1543-Copernicus had feared to publish
during his lifetime
1600-Dominican friar Giordano Bruno was
burned at the stake for his Copernican
views
1610- “Starry Messenger” published the
observations Galileo had made with his
telescope
1616- he was summoned to Rome and warned
Venice 1610

66. Galileo & heliocentrism
1543-Copernicus had feared to publish
during his lifetime
1600-Dominican friar Giordano Bruno was
burned at the stake for his Copernican
views
1610- “Starry Messenger” published the
observations Galileo had made with his
telescope
1616- he was summoned to Rome and warned
Venice 1610

67. Galileo & heliocentrism
1543-Copernicus had feared to publish
during his lifetime
1600-Dominican friar Giordano Bruno was
burned at the stake for his Copernican
views
1610- “Starry Messenger” published the
observations Galileo had made with his
telescope
1616- he was summoned to Rome and warned
1633- declared a heretic and put under
house arrest for the rest of his life
Venice 1610

68. Francis Bacon--induction
Bacon has been called the creator of empiricism
His works established and popularized inductive
methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called
simply the scientific method
His demand for a planned procedure of
investigating all things natural marked a new turn
in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for
science, much of which still surrounds
conceptions of proper methodology today
his scientific works called for an universal reform
of knowledge and the application of science and
Francis Bacon
invention to improve mankind’s material conditions
1st Viscount St Alban(s), KC
(1561 – 1626)
1620-Hobbes met, admired him, and worked as his
secretary

69. Novum Organum Scientiarum, 1620
(The New Instrument of Science)
Aristotle’s treatise on logic had been called the
Organon. It was primarily deductive
deduction argues from general principles to
specific cases, e.g., “All men are mortal, Socrates
is a man, therefore, we deduce, Socrates is
mortal”
the Novum Organon proposes to seek general
principles through experimentation, to induce
them, from the specific finding to the general
thus, no principle was to be accepted on
authority, not Aristotle’s, not the Church’s
the way was paved for doubt and modern science

70. Rene Descartes--deduction
amazingly enlightened education by the Jesuits at
La Fleche
like the Greek Skeptics, Descartes began his
intellectual adventure with doubt. He rejected all
principles until he reached his famous “cogito
ergo sum” (je pense, donc je suis)
analytic geometry: y=mx +b (Cartesian coordinates)
deductive system building
1641-Hobbes was invited by Descartes to give a
critique of Descartes’ “First Philosophy” Renatus Cartesius
1596 –1650
as a thoroughgoing materialist, Hobbes rejected
the spiritual aspects

71. III. Hobbes
A. Early Years
B. Scientific Revolution
C. Hobbes turns to science
1. From Thucydides to Euclid, 1610
2. materialism
a. De Corpore, 1655: physics
b. De Homine, 1658: psychology
c. De Cive, 1642
3. emigration, 1640--51
a. “the first of all that fled”
b. Prince of Wales, 1646-47
c. troubles in France
4. final years, 1651-79

72. ELEMENTORUM
PHILOSOPHIAE
SECTIO TERTIAE
DE CIVE
Proverbs 8:15
Per me Reges regnant et
legum conditores iusta
decernunt
[By me kings reign, and
rulers decree what is just]
Paris
1642

73. De Cive is the first of a trilogy of works written by Hobbes dealing with human
knowledge, the other two works in the trilogy being De Corpore (‘On the
body’), published in 1655 and De Homine ('On man'), published in 1658. Because
of the political turmoil of the time, namely the unrest leading up to the Civil War
of 1642, Hobbes hastily "ripened and plucked" the work which would
systematically come last: De Cive. This work comprises three parts: Libertas
(liberty), Imperium (dominion), and Religio (religion). In the first part, he
describes man’s natural condition, dealing with the natural laws; in the second,
the necessity of establishing a stable government is indicated. Finally, in the
third part, he writes something about religion.
The famous phrase Bellum omnium contra omnes (war of all against all)
appeared first in De Cive.
Wikipedia

74. III. Hobbes
A. Early Years
B. Scientific Revolution
C. Hobbes turns to science
1. From Thucydides to Euclid, 1610
2. materialism
a. De Corpore, 1655: physics
b. De Homine, 1658: psychology
c. De Cive, 1642
3. emigration, 1640--51
a. “the first of all that fled”
b. Prince of Wales, 1646-47
c. troubles in France
4. final years, 1651-79

75. Leviathan
1651

76. Leviathan
1651

77. Leviathan
1651

78. IV. Leviathan, 1651; chaps., 47, pp. 240 (Great Books ed.)
A. Introduction
1. meaning of title?
2. analogy to the body
B. Chap 13
1. “proof” of human equality
2. three causes of quarrels
3. condition of war
a. description -- memorize (SPNBS)
b. proofs
c. indians and “state of nature”
C. Chap 14
D. Chap 15
E. Chap 17
F. Other concepts

79. Nature (the art whereby God hath made and governes the world) is by
the art of man, as in many other things, so in this also imitated, that it
can make an Artificial Animal. For seeing life is but a motion of Limbs,
the begining whereof is in some principall part within; why may we not
say, that all Automata (Engines that move themselves by springs and
wheeles as doth a watch) have an artificiall life? For what is the Heart,
but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so many Strings; and the Joynts,
but so many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body, such as was
intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet further, imitating that Rationall
and most excellent worke of Nature, Man. For by Art is created that
great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine
CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall Man; though of greater stature and
strength than the Naturall, for whose protection and defence it was
intended; (cont.)

80. and in which, the Soveraignty is an Artificiall Soul, as giving life and
motion to the whole body; The Magistrates, and other Officers of
Judicature and Execution, artificiall Joynts; Reward and Punishment
(by which fastned to the seat of the Soveraignty, every joynt and
member is moved to performe his duty) are the Nerves, that do the
same in the Body Naturall; The Wealth and Riches of all the particular
members, are the Strength; Salus Populi (the Peoples Safety) its
Businesse; Counsellors, by whom all things needfull for it to know, are
suggested unto it, are the Memory; Equity and Lawes, an artificiall
Reason and Will; Concord, Health; Sedition, Sicknesse; and Civill War,
Death. Lastly, the Pacts and Covenants, by which the parts of this
Body Politique were at first made, set together, and united, resemble
that Fiat, or the Let Us Make Man, pronounced by God in the
Creation.
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, “Introduction”

81. natural man mechanical man state
heart spring
nerves strings reward and punishment
joints wheels magistrates & others
soul sovereign
strength wealth of every member
safety business
memory counselors
reason & will equity & laws
health concord
sickness sedition
death civil war

82. As God’s Fiat (Latin for “let it be made”) created man, so
the pacts and covenants create the “Body Politique.”
Next, Hobbes will describe the need for a state arising
from man’s condition in “the state of nature” and the
covenant which he will make.

83. IV.B.1--”proof” of human equality
CHAPTER XIII. OF THE NATURALL CONDITION OF MANKIND, AS
CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY, AND MISERY
Nature hath made men so equall, in the faculties of body, and mind; as that
though there bee found one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body, or of
quicker mind then another; yet when all is reckoned together, the difference
between man, and man, is not so considerable, as that one man can thereupon
claim to himselfe any benefit, to which another may not pretend, as well as he.
For as to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the
strongest, either by secret machination, or by confederacy with others, that
are in the same danger with himselfe.

84. And as to the faculties of the mind, (setting aside the arts grounded upon
words, and especially that skill of proceeding upon generall, and infallible rules,
called Science; which very few have, and but in few things; as being not a native
faculty, born with us; nor attained,(as Prudence,) while we look after somewhat
els,) I find yet a greater equality amongst men, than that of strength. For
Prudence, is but Experience; which equall time, equally bestowes on all men, in
those things they equally apply themselves unto. That which may perhaps
make such equality incredible, is but a vain conceipt of ones owne wisdome,
which almost all men think they have in a greater degree, than the Vulgar; that
is, than all men but themselves, and a few others, whom by Fame, or for
concurring with themselves, they approve. For such is the nature of men, that
howsoever they may acknowledge many others to be more witty, or more
eloquent, or more learned; Yet they will hardly believe there be many so wise as
themselves: For they see their own wit at hand, and other mens at a distance.
But this proveth rather that men are in that point equall, than unequall. For
there is not ordinarily a greater signe of the equall distribution of any thing,
than that every man is contented with his share.

85. IV.B.2--three causes of quarrels
From this equality of ability, ariseth equality of hope in the attaining of our
Ends. And therefore if any two men desire the same thing, which neverthelesse
they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies; and in the way to their End,
(which is principally their owne conservation, and sometimes their delectation
only,) endeavour to destroy, or subdue one an other. And from hence it comes
to passe, that where an Invader hath no more to feare, than an other mans
single power; if one plant, sow, build, or possesse a convenient Seat, others
may probably be expected to come prepared with forces united, to
dispossesse, and deprive him, not only of the fruit of his labour, but also of his
life, or liberty. And the Invader again is in the like danger of another.

86. So that in the nature of man, we find three principall causes of quarrel. First,
Competition; Secondly, Diffidence; Thirdly, Glory.
The first, maketh men invade for Gain; the second, for Safety; and the third, for
Reputation. The first use Violence, to make themselves Masters of other mens
persons, wives, children, and cattell; the second, to defend them; the third, for
trifles, as a word, a smile, a different opinion, and any other signe of
undervalue, either direct in their Persons, or by reflexion in their Kindred, their
Friends, their Nation, their Profession, or their Name.

87. IV.B.3--the condition of war
There Is Alwayes Warre Of Every One Against Every One Hereby it is manifest,
that during the time men live without a common Power to keep them all in awe,
they are in that condition which is called Warre; and such a warre, as is of every
man, against every man. For WARRE, consisteth not in Battell onely, or the act
of fighting; but in a tract of time, wherein the Will to contend by Battell is
sufficiently known: and therefore the notion of Time, is to be considered in the
nature of Warre; as it is in the nature of Weather. For as the nature of Foule
weather, lyeth not in a showre or two of rain; but in an inclination thereto of
many dayes together: So the nature of War, consisteth not in actuall fighting;
but in the known disposition thereto, during all the time there is no assurance
to the contrary. All other time is PEACE.

88. IV.B.3.a--SPNBS
In such condition, there is no place for industry; because the fruit
thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no
navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea;
no commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing,
such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the
earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which
is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the
life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.

89. Before moving on to the solution to this condition of “war of all
against all,” Hobbes offers proofs of his description:
the locked doors and armed travelers in “civilized “
England
the condition of the savages in North America
the attitude of European nation-states
“...in the state and posture of Gladiators;having their
weapons pointing, and their eyes fixed on one
another;that is, their Forts, Garrisons, and Guns upon the
Frontiers of theirKingdomes; and continuall Spyes upon
their neighbours; which is a posture of War.”

90. IV. Leviathan, 1651; chaps., 47, pp. 240 (Great Books ed.)
A. Introduction
B. Chap 13
C. Chap 14
1. definitions and contrasts
a. right
b. liberty
c. law
2. Three laws of nature
D. Chap 15
E. Chap 17
F. Other concepts

91. IV.C.1.a.--the right of nature
The RIGHT OF NATURE, which Writers commonly call Jus
Naturale, is the Liberty each man hath, to use his own
power, as he will himselfe, for the preservation of his own
Nature; that is to say, of his own Life; and consequently, of
doing any thing, which in his own Judgement, and Reason,
hee shall conceive to be the aptest means thereunto.

92. IV.C.1.b.--the liberty of nature
By LIBERTY, is understood, according to the proper
signification of the word, the absence of externall
Impediments: which Impediments, may oft take away part of
a mans power to do what hee would; but cannot hinder him
from using the power left him, according as his judgement,
and reason shall dictate to him.

93. IV.C.1.c.--the law of nature
A LAW OF NATURE, (Lex Naturalis), is a Precept, or generall
Rule, found out by Reason, by which a man is forbidden to do,
that, which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of
preserving the same; and to omit, that, by which he thinketh it
may be best preserved. For though they that speak of this
subject, use to confound Jus, and Lex, Right and Law; yet they
ought to be distinguished; because RIGHT, consisteth in liberty
to do, or to forbeare; Whereas LAW, determineth, and bindeth to
one of them: so that Law, and Right, differ as much, as
Obligation, and Liberty; which in one and the same matter are
inconsistent.

94. IV.C.1.c.--the laws of nature described--Preamble
And because the condition of Man, (as hath been declared
in the precedent Chapter) is a condition of Warre of every
one against everyone; in which case every one is governed
by his own Reason; and there is nothing he can make use
of, that may not be a help unto him, in preserving his life
against his enemyes; It followeth, that in such a condition,
every man has a Right to every thing; even to one anothers
body. And therefore, as long as this naturall Right of every
man to every thing endureth, there can be no security to
any man, (how strong or wise soever he be,) of living out
the time, which Nature ordinarily alloweth men to live.

95. IV.C.1.c.--the fundamental law of nature
And consequently it is a precept, or generall rule of
Reason, "That every man, ought to endeavour Peace, as
farre as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot
obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and
advantages of Warre." The first branch, of which Rule,
containeth the first, and Fundamentall Law of Nature; which
is, "T seek Peace, and follow it." The Second, the summe
o
of the Right of Nature; which is, "By all means we can, to
defend our selves."

96. IV.C.1.c.--the second law of nature explained
From this Fundamentall Law of Nature, by which men are commanded to
endeavour Peace, is derived this second Law; "That a man be willing, when
others are so too, as farre-forth, as for Peace, and defence of himselfe he shall
think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so
much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himselfe."
For as long as every man holdeth this Right, of doing any thing he liketh; so
long are all men in the condition of Warre. But if other men will not lay down
their Right, as well as he; then there is no Reason for any one, to devest
himselfe of his: For that were to expose himselfe to Prey, (which no man is
bound to) rather than to dispose himselfe to Peace. This is that Law of the
Gospell; "Whatsoever you require that others should do to you, that doye to
them." And that Law of all men, "Quod tibi feiri non vis, alteri ne feceris."

97. IV. Leviathan, 1651; chaps., 47, pp. 240 (Great Books ed.)
A. Introduction
B. Chap 13
C. Chap 14
D. Chap 15
1. definition of justice
2. contrast with earlier thinkers
E. Chap 17
1. man’s end
2. “covenants without the sword…”
3. The social contract (covenant)
a. goal?
b. terms? enforcement?
c. duration?
d. parties?
4. commonwealth and sovereign defined
F. Other concepts
1. the sovereign -- one man or many?
2. the “Kingdom of Darkness”

98. IV.D.1.--the third law of nature, justice
From that law of Nature, by which we are obliged to
transferre to another, such Rights, as being retained,
hinder the peace of Mankind, there followeth a Third;
which is this, That Men Performe Their Covenants Made:
without which, Covenants are in vain, and but Empty words;
and the Right of all men to all things remaining, wee are still
in the condition of Warre.

99. IV.D.1.-- justice and injustice defined
And in this law of Nature, consisteth the Fountain and
Originall of JUSTICE. For where no Covenant hath
preceded, there hath no Right been transferred, and every
man has right to every thing; and consequently, no action
can be Unjust. But when a Covenant is made, then to break
it is Unjust: And the definition of INJUSTICE, is no other
than The Not Performance Of Covenant. And whatsoever
is not Unjust, is Just.

100. IV.E.1--man’s end (goal)
CHAPTER XVII.-- OF THE CAUSES, GENERATION, AND DEFINITION
OF A COMMON-WEALTH
The finall Cause, End, or Designe of men, (who naturally love
Liberty, and Dominion over others,) in the introduction of that
restraint upon themselves, (in which wee see them live in Common-
wealths,) is the foresight of their own preservation, and of a more
contented life thereby; that is to say, of getting themselves out from
that miserable condition of Warre, which is necessarily consequent
(as hath been shewn) to the naturall Passions of men, when there is
no visible Power to keep them in awe, and tye them by feare of
punishment to the performance of their Covenants, and
observation of these Lawes of Nature set down in the fourteenth
and fifteenth Chapters.

101. IV.E.2--”covenants without the sword”
CHAPTER XVII.-- OF THE CAUSES, GENERATION, AND DEFINITION
OF A COMMON-WEALTH
For the Lawes of Nature (as Justice, Equity, Modesty,
Mercy, and (in summe) Doing T Others, As Wee Would Be
o
Done T if themselves, without the terrour of some Power,
o,)
to cause them to be observed, are contrary to our naturall
Passions, that carry us to Partiality, Pride, Revenge, and
the like. And Covenants, without the Sword, are but Words,
and of no strength to secure a man at all.

102. IV.E.3--generation of the commonwealth
The only way to erect such a Common Power, as may be able to defend
them from the invasion of Forraigners, and the injuries of one another,
and thereby to secure them in such sort, as that by their owne
industrie, and by the fruites of the Earth, they may nourish themselves
and live contentedly; is, to conferre all their power and strength upon
one Man, or upon one Assembly of men, that may reduce all their Wills,
by plurality of voices, unto one Will: which is as much as to say, to
appoint one man, or Assembly of men, to beare their Person; and every
one to owne, and acknowledge himselfe to be Author of whatsoever he
that so beareth their Person, shall Act, or cause to be Acted, in those
things which concerne the Common Peace and Safetie; and therein to
submit their Wills, every one to his Will, and their Judgements, to his
Judgment. (cont.)

103. IV.E.3--generation of the commonwealth
submit their Wills, every one to his Will, and their Judgements, to his Judgment.
This is more than Consent, or Concord; it is a reall Unitie of them all, in one and
the same Person, made by Covenant of every man with every man, in such
manner, as if every man should say to every man, "I Authorise and give up my
Right of Governing my selfe, to this Man, or to this Assembly of men, on this
condition, that thou give up thy Right to him, and Authorise all his Actions in
like manner." This done, the Multitude so united in one Person, is called a
COMMON-WEALTH, in latine CIVITAS. This is the Generation of that great
LEVIATHAN, or rather (to speake more reverently) of that Mortall God, to
which wee owe under the Immortall God, our peace and defence. For by this
Authoritie, given him by every particular man in the Common-Wealth, he hath
the use of so much Power and Strength conferred on him, that by terror
thereof, he is inabled to forme the wills of them all, to Peace at home, and
mutuall ayd against their enemies abroad.

104. IV.E.3. the social contract(covenant)
a. goal? security of life and property
b. terms? each surrenders his rights to the Sovereign
c. duration? permanent, once entered upon no going
back
d. parties? every man with every man. NOTE WELL the
Sovereign is not a party, he is “above” the contract

105. IV.E.4--commonwealth and sovereign defined
CHAPTER XVII.-- OF THE CAUSES, GENERATION, AND DEFINITION
OF A COMMON-WEALTH
And in him [the Sovereign]consisteth the Essence of the Common-wealth;
which (to define it,) is "One Person, of whose Acts a great Multitude, by mutuall
Covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the Author, to
the end he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think
expedient, for their Peace and Common Defence.
And he that carryeth this Person, as called SOVERAIGNE, and said to have
Soveraigne Power; and every one besides, his SUBJECT.

106. IV.F. other concepts
1.the sovereign -- one or many?
The question of the best form of state is not one of logic, according to
Hobbes, but of convenience, that is, of the aptitude of the state to
produce the security and peace of the people for which a government is
instituted. However, on purely practical grounds Hobbes considers
monarchy the best form of state because it suffers less from
competition for office and power than do aristocracies and
democracies; also, it is easier for one than for many to act resolutely
and consistently.
Sovereign power is “incommunicable and inseparable,” and Hobbes
attacks any institution, town or private corporation, that may weaken
the omnipotence of the state. (cont.)

107. the sovereign -- one or many? (concluded)
Sovereign power is “incommunicable and inseparable,” and Hobbes
attacks any institution, town or private corporation, that may weaken
the omnipotence of the state. He is vehemently opposed to division of
powers or mixed government, and he goes so far as to say that there
would have been no civil war in England if it had not been for the
widespread opinion that the sovereignty was divided between King,
Lords, and Commons. There is particular danger in the liberty of the
subject to challenge the wisdom or legality of the sovereign’s actions,
the “poisonous doctrine” that “every private man is judge of good and
evil actions,” and that “whatsoever a man does against his conscience is
sin.” Against such “seditious doctrines” Hobbes demands the
unqualified obedience of the subject.
Ebenstein, pp. 360-361

108. IV.F.2 --the Kingdom of Darkness
For from the time that the Bishop of Rome had gotten to be
acknowledged for bishop universal, by pretense of succession to St.
Peter, their whole hierarchy, or kingdom of darkness, may be compared
not unfitly to the kingdom of fairies ; that is, to old wives’ fables in England
concerning ghosts and spirits, and the feats they play in the night. And if
a man consider the original of this ecclesiastical dominion, he will easily
perceive that the Papacy is no other than the ghost of the deceased
Roman empire sitting crowned upon the grave thereof.

109. Criticism

110. Criticism

111. V. Criticism
1. “father of totalitarianism?” Ebenstein’s seven points
2. contributions
3. weaknesses

112. V.1. Hobbes is NOT the father of totalitarianism
1. government is established by a contract
2. government establishes order for the benefit of the citizens
3. Hobbesian state is authoritarian NOT totalitarian
4.sovereign may be one or many. Totalitarians are one-man
5. there is no glorification of war (class war or imperialist)
6. Hobbes requires only outer conformity
7. Hobbesian stress on the inalienability of human life

113. contributions
Hobbes began the “great conversation” about political philosophy in
English. His concepts of the state of nature, the laws of nature, and the
social contract would lead in a direct line to the 18th century founders of
the American Republic.

114. weaknesses
His materialism was the product of his fascination with the Scientific
Revolution and his hostility towards the religious warfare of his age. His
emphasis on order at the expense of liberty stemmed from his
abhorrence of the violence of the Thirty Years’ War and the English Civil
War. Both these qualities undercut the insightful analysis of his work.

115. As Hobbes lay dying in 1679 England was once again convulsed in
political struggles between Crown and Parliament. The revolution which
followed in 1688 was called Glorious because compared to the Civil War it
was almost bloodless. This conflict would produce another great work
of political philosophy, one even more influential on America’s founding
fathers.
But, that’s another story...