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NON–CATEGORICAL
APPROACH TO TEACHING
CHILDREN WITH
LEARNING DIFFICULTIES

Jenny de Jonge (MA Spec.Ed.)
Director
Centre for Learning and Excellence
www.centreforlearningandexcellence.com.au

© Centre for Learning and Excellence 2008

WELCOME

• An Outline of ‘Best Teaching Practice’ based upon the Non-
Categorical Approach which is about providing ‘best’
teaching and ‘best’ learning opportunities.

• Recognising Learning Difficulties and factors that influence
identification.

• Centre for Learning and Excellence Model which is based on
“Best Teaching Practice”.

• Learning Difficulties – what can you do?
Early diagnosis and Experts


1. NON-CATEGORICAL APPROACH

• Optimising teaching and
learning for all students

• Based on ‘Best Teaching
Practice’ and comprises two
main elements:

Effective Instruction

Optimising the Learning
Environment


2. BEST TEACHING PRACTICE

2.1 EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

2.2 THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT



1. Initial Assessment

2. Specifying Learning Skills

3. Instructional Planning

4. Measurement and Recording
Systems

5. Evaluation Procedures



1. Initial Assessment

What the student knows and
the starting point for teaching is
identified through:

• Formal and diagnostic
assessment

• Program placement tests



2. Specifying Learning Skills

The What, the How and the When

• What is to be learned

• How it is learned

• When it is learned

• Entry skills needed to start learning

A learning skill is defined as learning that students can acquire
through teaching and master through practice.




• Use of structured material

• Direct instruction

• Frequent student feedback

• Questioning techniques

• Concept teaching and other teaching strategies

• Modification of teaching on the basis of individual needs

• Task analysis




TASK ANALYSIS

• What does the student need to know in order to learn this
skill?

• What materials are available to teach this skill?

• When does student mastery of this skill occur?

• The need to modify teaching through practice to achieve
learning mastery.



Measurement & Recording Systems
4.

1. Dependent Measurement

2. Direct Recording Systems



Evaluation Procedures
5.

1. Continuous Measurement

2. Non-continuous Measurement



1. Student Engaged Time

2. Quality of Teaching

3. Classroom Climate



1. Student Engaged Time

• Variation

• Effective use of timetable –
activities that are relevant, varied
and interesting



2. Quality of Teaching

Direct instruction involves:

• Proactive teaching

• Assessment of student
progress

• Positive corrective feedback

• Assistance and involvement
with student practice that
leads to the achievement of
that skill


3. Classroom Climate

• Emphasis on teaching, management
skills for organising teaching, and
employing monitoring techniques

• Teachers’ variables – personality,
communication skills, confidence –
are also part of the equation

• Positive and encouraging teaching,
that assists and supports learning,
enhances a student’s opportunity to
respond and achieve


3. RECOGNISING LEARNING DIFFICULTIES

3.1 WHAT IS A LEARNING DIFFICULTY?

3.2 FALLING THROUGH THE NET



1. Reading age (RA)
discrepancy

2. Reading performance
variation

3. Teacher expectation



1. Reading Age Discrepancy
Table 1: Sliding Scale

Grades RA Discrepancy (CA-RA)

1- 2 - 6 months

3–4 - 1 year

5–6 - 1.6 years

Reading ages may vary according to the reading discrepancy
stated, that is, difference exceeding chronological age.



Table 2: Year 4 Normal Distribution

Optimum Learning
Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

+12 months

-12 months +12 months



OPTIMUM LEARNING

• Students are able to do all of the work given, due to their level
of proficiency (learning and practice of that learning)

• Students benefit from the extended curriculum (further practice)

• Students therefore benefit from an optimum learning experience



2. Reading Performance Variation

• Basic reading skills

• Comprehension skills



2. Reading Performance Variation: BASIC READING SKILLS
Example 1: Basic Reading Skills

From a concerned teacher to parent

Child aged 7 years 4 months

On the South Australian Spelling Test your child scored 29 - an age
equivalent of 8.2 years. On a diagnostic test your child was unsure of these
digraphs: oy, a_e/ai, oa/o_e and rules 'ck' after a short vowel, and double z
oy, a_e/ai, oa/o_e
- 'zz' after a short vowel. A good knowledge of other digraphs and blends in
zz'
spelling, as in her reading.



Table 3: Basic Reading Skills

Reading Age Reading Skills
(Years & Months)
Months)
5.00 Short vowels
5.06 Consonants
6.00 Blending, ck
7.00 Initial 2 consonant blends
7.06 Simple suffixes, 3 consonant blends

8.00 Long vowels
8.06 Silent e, contractions
9.00 Vowel digraphs e.g. ou/ow, au/aw
ou/ ow,
-r controlled vowels, long vowels with ‘r’, additional simple suffixes, difficult consonants plus ‘c’, ‘g’
9.06 Silent letters, silent letter exceptions, contractions, compounds
compounds

10.00 Syllabification,-le,
Syllabification,-
10.06 Prefixes, suffixes
11.00 Odd sounds, Latin roots



Table 4: Phonetically Predictable Words

PHONETICALLY PREDICTABLE WORDS YEAR 1 READING AGES

CVC words – e.g. ram 6.2 - 6.4

CCVC words – e.g. tram 6.4 – 6.6

CVCC words – e.g. sank 6.4 – 6.6

CCVCC words – eg. stamp 6.7 – 6.8

C – consonant V - Vowel



2. Reading Performance Variation: COMPREHENSION SKILLS
Example 2: Basic Skill Knowledge

These 1st Graders have indicated that they can read well enough,
but could not comprehend well enough.

Don’t change horses until they stop running.
•

You can’t teach an old dog new math.
•

The pen is mightier than the pigs.
•

A penny saved is not much.
•

If at first you don’t succeed, get new batteries.
•



2. Reading Performance Variation: COMPREHENSION SKILLS
Table 5: Comprehension Skills

COMPREHENSION SKILLS APPROPRIATE READING AGES

RECALL R.A. 6 – 7 years
1. Remember words
2. Remember people
3. Remember events
4. Internalise if useful or vivid
5. Answers questions – Who? When? Where?

INTERPRETATION R.A. 7 – 8 years

1. Know ideas
2. Know relationships
3. Summarize main information
4. Answer questions – What? Why? How?



Table 5: Comprehension Skills…cont

EXTRAPOLATION R.A. 8 – 9 years

1. Extend ideas
2. Infer conclusions
3. Draw conclusions
4. Answer questions – If this or? What caused? But if?

EVALUATION R.A. 9 – 10+ years

Objective
1. Know – accuracy
2. Know – logic reasoning
3 Answer fact or opinion or fiction or non-fiction
non-

Subjective
1. Give own connotation
2. Give intensiveness of interest or disinterest
3. Answer like or dislike because



Figure 1: The Learning Ladder

Optimum learning Optimum learning

Grade average
Grade average

Competency level

Competency level



Table 6: Year 5 student with identified learning difficulty

Optimum Learning
Chronological Age 8.9 10.3 11.9
Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
•Written comprehension
•Verbal comprehension

•Word identification

•Speed of writing
(graded words)
•Word accuracy
•(graded text)

•Spelling

+18 months
-18 months

ACCELERATION

TIME
Total = A + T


4. CENTRE FOR LEARNING AND EXCELLENCE MODEL

4.1 INITIAL ASSESSMENT

4.2 ANALYSIS OF RESULT

4.3 TAILOR INDIVIDUAL PROGRAM

4.4 SEQUENTIAL TEACHING

4.5 TEST SKILLS FOR MASTERY

4.6 PROVIDE SKILL PRACTICE

4.7 PROGRESS TO NEXT SKILL



Figure 2: CLE Model Initial
Initial
Assessment
Assessment

Analyse
Analyse
Results
Results

Tailor Individual
Tailor Individual
Program
Program

Sequential
Provide
Sequential
Provide
Teaching
Skill Practice
Teaching
Skill Practice

Test for Skill
Test for Skill
Mastery
Mastery

Progress to Next
Progress to Next
Skill
Skill

End of Year / Exit
End of Year / Exit
Assessment
Assessment



Initial
Initial
1. Literacy
Assessment
Assessment

Formal Assessment (Norm Referenced –
Analyse
Analyse
Results
Reading Age)
Results

• Word identification (graded words /
Tailor Individual
Tailor Individual
Program
graded text)
Program

• Reading fluency (basic sight text /
Sequential
Provide
Sequential
Provide
Teaching
Skill Practice
graded text)
Teaching
Skill Practice

• Spelling
Test for Skill
Test for Skill
Mastery
Mastery
• Written comprehension (reading for
understanding)
Progress to Next
Progress to Next
• Verbal comprehension (verbal recall for
Skill
Skill
meaning)
End of Year / Exit
End of Year / Exit
Assessment
Assessment



Initial
Initial
1. Literacy
Assessment
Assessment

Diagnostic Assessment & Placement Tests
Analyse
Analyse
Results
(Criterion Referenced – e.g. one minute
Results
probes)
Tailor Individual
Tailor Individual
• Read letter names (order / random)
Program
Program

• Read sounds
Sequential
Provide
Sequential
Provide
Teaching
Skill Practice
• Read sound combinations (consonant &
Teaching
Skill Practice
vowel digraphs)
Test for Skill
Test for Skill
Mastery • Read numbers
Mastery

• Read sight word words (isolation / text)
Progress to Next
Progress to Next
• Write story given verbal sequence
Skill
Skill

• Write numbers / story
End of Year / Exit
End of Year / Exit
Assessment
Assessment



Initial
Initial
2. Numeracy
Assessment
Assessment

Formal Assessment – (Norm Referenced /
Analyse
Analyse
Results
Mathematics Age)
Results

• Number computation (basic operations)
Tailor Individual
Tailor Individual
Program
Program
Diagnostic Assessment & Placement Tests –
Sequential
Provide
(Criterion Referenced – eg. one minute probes /
Sequential
Provide
Teaching
Skill Practice
Teaching
Skill Practice
80% mastery)
Test for Skill
Test for Skill
Mastery
• Automatic recall (Hierarchy of basic
Mastery
operations)
Progress to Next
• Grade level curriculum tests including
Progress to Next
Skill
Skill
problem solving
• Fractions
End of Year / Exit
End of Year / Exit
Assessment
• Write numbers
Assessment


4.2 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS


Optimum Learning
CA 7.8 8.2 9.2
Kindy Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
•Spelling / word accuracy

•Speed of reading (basic


•Word identification
NOT ASSESSABLE

sight word test)

ACCELERATION

TIME
Total = A + T


4.2 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

Table 8: Same student with identified learning difficulty repeating Year 2

CA 6.6 7.0 7.6
•Spelling / word accuracy


•Speed of reading
(graded text)

-6 months +6 months
ACCELERATION

TIME
Total = A + T


4.3 TAILOR INDIVIDUAL PROGRAMME

Table 9: English Program Profile

ENGLISH PROGRAM PLACEMENT & PROGRESS PROFILE
NAME……………………….…………………………………………………………………………PROGRAM DURATION T1,T2,T3,T4 (200..) T1,T2,T3,T4 (200 ) T1,T2,T3,T4 (200 ) T1,T2,T3,T4 (200 )

LEARNING SUPPORT PROGRAMS BASIC SKILLS UPGRADING PROGRAMS ACCELERATED LEARNING PROGRAMS
Structural Analysis
Handwriting Structural Analysis Skills
Spelling
. PreWriting 1 W/B…………………Foundation H/W. .Y3,4,5,6 Spelling
. Secondary Spelling Lists 1234
. Let’s Practise Foundation H/W W/B/Card . SMD Reading Fluency Probes 1-12,13-24,25-33
. Secondary Special Spelling Lists
. SP Writing the Letters b/d; b/d/p/q . SME Reading Fluency Probes 1-12, 13-24, 25-36,37-48
. Morphographic Spelling W/B .
. SP Writes Letters/Numbers/Foundation 1/2/3 . SMF Reading Fluency Probes 1-12,13-24,25-37
. SM Glossary E/F……………………SM E/F Spelling Rules,
. Cursive Writing Probes . SMF Morphograph Probes
Morphographs,
Phonic Skills Expressive Writing
Contractions & Homophones
. PreReading W/B ………………….Sound Work W/B 1,2,3,4,5 . Expressive Writing 2 W/B
Expressive Writing
. Sequencing Phonics W/B ½………………Blending Card .. . . EW2 Punct & Writing L 1-11, 12-22, 23-33, 34-45
. CW1/1.2 Writing Prep, Note-taking, Planning
. SP Pupil Reading & Sound Sheets . EW2 Expressive Writing L 1-11, 12-22, 23-33, 33-45
&Text Types
. SP Reading Fluency Sheets . Writing Extensions D
. CW2 Grammar, Punctuation, Vocabulary, Spelling
. CLE Sound Card. . . Decoding Sound Sheet . . R&W Writing Genre DEF/R&W Argument
Comprehension including SS&SE Grammar,
. Phonics First W/B 123456 . Writing Skills W/B Y3&4 Y5&6
Punctuation, Vocabulary, Spelling, Text Types 1/2
. Word Attack Basics/Decoding A W/B . . Targeting Text/Report, Recount, Narrative
Written Expression Prep
. B1/B2 Decoding Strategies W/B Procedure, Response
. CW3 Essay Preparation, Structure Analysis
. Macquarie Word Attack Skills L1-14 . Explanation, Exposition, Discussion .
Planning, Drafting, Writing & Proof Reading
. Macquarie & RFreedom Word Attack Comprehension . CW4 Writing for Proficiency W/B 123
Structural Analysis Skills . Reading Mastery V & VI Modules
. English W/B Y7/8/9 Essay Writing Y7-10 W/B . . .
Spelling M1Main Idea (Intro). M2.1 Main Idea (Cont)
. Writing Proficiency A/B/C W/B
. Sight Words Read/Spell 1-10 . . M2.2 Main Idea. M3 Main Idea & Supporting Details ...
. Explain, Argue & Discuss W/B
. Spelling Mastery / Spell Words A,B,C,D,E,F M4Outlining M1Outlining (Illiad). .
Comprehension
. Spelling Mastery F Write Morphographs . M2 Relevant Information M3 Contradictions .
. CEW1 Vocabulary/Spelling/Writing Mechanics/
. Junior Spelling Demons . M4 Figurative Language M5 Inference
Writing Structure/Comprehension & WE/Text Types
. Words Often Misspelled . Writing Mechanics/Structure BPG Text Types. .
. CEW2 Vocabulary/ Spelling/Writing Structure/
. Number Vocabulary . BST Y3/Y5 Literacy & Writing Tests/W/B
Writing Mechanics/Comprehension& WE/ Text Types/
. Basic Maths Words & Phrases . OC English W/B/. OC Eng/Maths/GA Tests ..
. CWE3 Vocabulary/ Spelling/Writing Mechanics
. Spelling Mastery W/B A,B,C,D,E,F . Text Types 12345
Writing Structure/Comprehension &
. Spelling Mastery Homework Guide A,B,C,D,E,F Answers . C&WE Y5/6 1. Finding the Facts .
WE/Comprehension &WE/ Text Types
2. Giving An Opinion
Comprehension . SS Study SkillsElla Prep 1,2,3
. Excel Comprehension & WE W/B Y5/6
. Comprehension Once a Week W/B 1/2/3 . Essay Writing for Years 8-10
Grammar & Usage
Writing Comprehension
. R&W DEF Grammar & Punctuation WExt D Grammar.
. Expressive Writing 1 W/B C&EW Y7 1. Main Idea/Supporting Details/Outlining
. R&W C Grammar Practice R&W E Sentences .
. EW1 Lessons 1-10,11-20,21-30,31-40,41-50 2. Giving An Opinion 3. Reference Skills . . . . .
. Good Grammar - Nouns/ Verbs /Adjectives
. Reasoning & Writing W/B C ......... Comprehension Skills for Senior Students
Pronouns/ Adverbs/ Conj/ Prep/ Articles/
. R&W Lessons 1-20,21-40,41-60,61-80,81-110 Grammar & Usage
Sentences/Phrases/Clauses
. R&W C L1-10 EW2 PreProgram Y3. . . . . . . . Advanced English/Language Y8-10
Punctuation &Vocabulary
. Main Idea Sentence W/B . Getting It Right
. Written Exp for SS. . . Pascal s Basic Primary Grammar


4.3 TAILOR INDIVIDUAL PROGRAMME

Table 10: Literacy and Writing Program

A. Learning Support
Handwriting Probes
Reading Fluency W/Bs
Spell Words C/D
Spelling Mastery D W/B, F W/B
Fictional Reading with Main Idea

B. Basic Skills Upgrading
Main Idea
Comprehension & Written Expression – Finding the Facts Y5/6

C. Learning Acceleration
Main Idea & Supporting Details
Outlining
Comprehension & Written Expression – Giving an Opinion Y5/6
EW2 Writing & Punctuation Modules 2, 3, 4
Grammar Practice / Grammar / Sentences
Vocabulary & Punctuation
Sentences, Phrases & Clauses
Writing Extensions D
NAPLAN Y7 Literacy & Writing


4.4 SEQUENTIAL TEACHING

• Teacher-directed

• Focus student on what is to be learnt

• Variety of teaching methods

• “Learn how to learn”


4.5 TEST FOR SKILL MASTERY

Table 11: Sounds, Blends and Words

SOUNDS/BLENDS/WORDS RATE PER MINUTE
Single sounds (consonants & vowels) 40-80pm
40-
•
Phonetically predictable blends 80pm
•
Phonetically predictable 3,4,5 letter words 80pm
•
Sight words (phonetically unpredictable) 60-80pm
60-
•


4.6 PROVIDE SKILL PRACTICE

• Homework practice
reinforces new learning and
mastery of new skills


4.7 PROGRESS TO THE NEXT SKILL

Table 12: Mastery Test Example

SEQUENCING PHONICS – PART 1
READING FLUENCY PROGRESS REPORT

Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date Started. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

UNIT Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7
Reads sounds tansfemi ta na sa fa te ne se fe me ti ni si fi mi pi to no so fo mo tu nu su fu mu ta ne si fo mu
/blends @ buodp ma pa da ba pe de be di bi po do bo pu du bu pa de bi to nu
>60-80 per sa fe mi po du
minute ba te ni so fu
NO. PM

DATE

UNIT Unit 8 Unit 9 Unit 10 Unit 11 Unit 12 Unit 13 Unit 14
Reads blends at as af am et es ef em it is if im ip ib ot os of om ut us uf um up at ed is of um ne at is fo mu
@ >60-80 per ap ab an ad ep eb en ed in id op ob on od ub un ud ap eb id on us ap eb id on su
minute ad en it on ut af em it po us
ab em if os ub ad ne ti no un
NO. PM

DATE


4.8 END OF YEAR ASSESSMENT


Optimum Learning
CA 8.9 10.3 12.3 14.3


(graded words / text)
•Word recognition
•Rate of reading
•Spelling

ACCELERATION

TIME
Total = A + T


4.8 END OF YEAR ASSESSMENT

Table 14: Year 7 student with identified learning difficulty – 9 MONTHS LATER

Optimum Learning
CA 11.0 13.0 15.0

•Spelling



5. LEARNING DIFFICULTIES – WHAT CAN YOU DO?

5.1 THE VALUE OF EARLY DIAGNOSIS

5.2 USE THE EXPERTS – Multi-disciplinary
Approach


5.1 THE VALUE OF EARLY DIAGNOSIS

• Auditory, visual processing and
writing coordination problems

• Poor self esteem, lack of confidence

• ‘Learning gap’ increases year after
year

• A ‘Learning gap’ is not your child’s
fault

• Trust yourself and act!


5.2 USE THE EXPERTS – multidisciplinary approach

• Use the experts: good teachers,
psychologists, speech pathologists,
behavioural optometrists,
occupational therapists

• Multi-disciplinary intervention should
occur in conjunction with the
education solution

• Use the handouts and checklists
provided


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