6th ed APA Style Manual

APA Style
Formatting Requirements
According to the new 6 th

edition
• What’s new in the 6th edition of the APA style manual?
• What are formatting requirements?
• What are the “secrets” to good writing?
• Does grammar and sentence structure really matter?
• How should I structure an essay?
• Is it possible to develop good writing skills?
Copyright Johanna P. Bishop 2009 1

Worksheet # 1
Directions: Using the following information, format a cover
page for an APA styled paper (don’t worry if you make
mistakes– no one will see this except you).

• Title of the paper: Newcomer socialization
in the workplace
• Author: Your name
• Date: Today’s date
• Add any other information that you think is
required for an APA style cover page for a
paper

Running head: NEWCOMER SOCIALIZATION
Answer
Newcomer Socialization in the
Workplace

Jane P. Doe

Wilmington University

ONLY insert the
date, assignment, co
urse name, or
instructor name IF
your instructor
requires it!


The 6th Edition
• NOTE: This slide
show is not a
substitute for
reading the APA
style manual!

Double-check the
printing: Should
use the Second
printing!!!
4

What Will Be Covered in This
Presentation:
Manual has 8 chapters, we will cover 7 of them

1. Types of Articles & Ethical Considerations
2. Manuscript Content
3. Writing Guidance
4. Writing Mechanics
5. Tables & Figures
6. Crediting Sources
7. Formatting References
For good measure… suggestions for improving your writing !

. Types of Articles (pp. 9-20)
• Primary publications
– Journal articles that are reports of empirical
studies, literature reviews, theoretical
articles, methodological articles, or case studies

6

Empirical Articles
• Reports of original research
• Usually, these articles have the following
sections:
– Introduction These are reports
– Method of original
research
– Results
– Discussion
EMPIRICAL means to be
able to observe through
one or more of the physical
senses

Literature Reviews
• Critical evaluations of articles • In lit reviews:
that have already been – Researchers define and
published explain a problem
– Meta-analysis: researchers – Summarize previous
use existing data of several investigations so as to
studies but now analyze this inform readers the current
using statistical analysis state of knowledge about
– Lit reviews also include this problem
synthesis of previous – Identify gaps in the
literature describing what literature
has been already • Contradictions
researched, or is
known, about the topic • Inconsistencies
– The purpose of a lit review • Relationships, etc
is to explain what is already – Suggest next steps in solving
known about a topic the problem

8

Theoretical Articles
• Researchers draw upon existing research to
formulate a theory
• They will discuss the development of a
theory so as to trace its origins, or
history, and then either refine the existing
theory or advance a new one
• Discuss a theory’s internal consistency and
external validity

Methodological Articles
• Present new methodological approaches to
studying a problem
• May refine an approach used in the past or
propose a new one
– Present reason and rationale for why the
proposed new or revised approach would be
better than approaches used on the past

These papers are often part of
a Research Proposal

Case Studies
• Case studies examine a specific problem in a
specific situation or group, organization, or
individual
• Case studies have to be carefully written so
as to protect confidential case material
Graduate
psychology
students often have
to conduct and
write up interview
materials

Other Types of Articles
• Other articles may include
– Reviews
– Commentaries
– Letters to the editor or introductory articles to
dedicated journal topics
– Monographs

12

APA Guidance
• APA style manual provides guidance for
scientific writing style
– No right or wrong, but provides guidance to
established writing conventions
• Each scholarly discipline may have its own
writing requirements

13

Ethical & Legal Standards of
Publishing
• Basic requirements/ ethical principles for
all scholarly publication:
– Ensure accuracy of scientific knowledge
– Protect rights and welfare of research
participants (p. 11)
– Protect intellectual property rights (p.12)

14

. Manuscript Structure (pp. 21-38)
• Title • Author
– Titles of scholarly work are – First name
usually long because they – Middle initial
should fully explain the – Last name
topic of the manuscript
– EX: Johanna P. Bishop NOT J.
– Each title should be fully P. Bishop
explanatory when it stands
alone from the text – Omit all titles or degrees
– Upper and lower case • Institutional Affiliation
– Centered on the page – Identifies location of where
– Positioned in the upper half the author conducted
of the page research
– Use city and state of where
institutional affiliation exists

15

Abstract
• What is it? • Abstracts:
– Brief summary of the contents
of the manuscript  Begin the abstract on a new
– Provides quick information page
about the topic, research  Identify it with the running
methodology, etc head and page number 2
• Qualities of a good abstract (p.
26):  Label “Abstract” should
– Accurate
appear in upper and lower
– Non-evaluative
case letters
– Coherent and readable  Centered
• Active voice  At top of the abstract
• Present verb tense to describe  Abstract itself is single-
conclusions
• Past verb tense to describe
spaced paragraph without
specific variables manipulated paragraph indentation
or outcomes measured
– Concise
• Typical word limits: 150-250
words


Abstracts for • Literature Review or Meta-
Analysis
Types of Studies – Problem under investigation
• Methodological papers
• Empirical Article – Describes general class of
methods being discussed
– Problem under investigation
– Essential features of the
– Participant characteristics proposed method
– Essential features of the study’s – Range of application of the
methods proposed method
– Basic findings • Abstract for a case study should
– Conclusions or implications describe:
• Theory-oriented papers – Subject or relevant
– Describe how the theory or characteristics of the
individual, organizational, or
principles on which it is based
group presented
works
– Nature of a solution to the
problem presented by the case
examples
– Questions raised for additional
research or theory

Example of an Abstract
Mullen, J., Vladi, N. & Mills, A.J. (2006). Making sense of the Walkerton crisis. Culture and Organization 12
(3), 207-220.

Problem Participants
The principle of investigating organizational crisis
usually involves blame, however, researchers have found
that often crisis is precipitated by people trying to make
sense of their environment. This research study
summarizes a case in which an organizational crisis, a
community’s response to tainted water, was examined Methods
using sensemaking theory. Using the report of a public
account of the Walkerton water crisis of 2000, the
researchers apply sensemaking theory to examine and
explain how organizational culture and power played a
role in this case. The researchers found that in studying
organizational crisis using Weick’s sensemaking
approach, more needed to be known about
Findings organization, culture, and power as they apply to and
play a role in sensemaking in non-routine situations.
Conclusions


Running head: BRIEF TITLE IN CAPS 1
Example: Title Page
Title of Paper in Upper and Lower Case:
Centered Between Margins

Johanna P. Bishop

Wilmington University
Notice
Double-
spacing


NEWCOMER SOCIALIZATION 2
Subsequent Pages Note the
difference in Note the
Newcomer Socialization in the
the header bold
Workplace
from the formatting
cover page Organizational newcomers experience a in the title
process of becoming socialized into the
organization. This socialization process
includes completing new hire
paperwork, attending mandatory
training, being introduced to co-workers, and
Use learning how things are done and what is
citations expected in the organization (Schein, 1999).
For many organizational newcomers, the
process of joining an organization is filled
with anxiety, hope, expectations, and
disorientation. Learning how to become a
Use 12 point valued organizational member
Times ………………………………………Double-space Use 1” margins
Roman font the text all around
throughout

Page
Organizing the Reference References

Allen, B. A. (1997). Homeschooling

and student achievement. NY: Irwin

Books.

• Reference pages Pratley, S.L. (2001). Teaching students to write.
are organized in
alpha order by Chicago: New Books, Inc.
the author’s last
name Smythe, B.A. (1998). The relationship of student

• If there is no cognition and language acquisition. Journal of
author, use title
Educational and Cognitive Processing, 23(4),

345-367.


. Writing Guidance (pp. 61-84)
Level Format of Headings
s
1 Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase
Heading
2 Flush Left, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase
Heading
3 Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period.
4 Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase
paragraph heading ending with a period.
5 Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading
ending with a period.
22

Seriation
• Use of bulleted lists now permitted for
clarity (Caution: use them sparingly)
• Within a sentences use lower case letters
within parentheses
– Ex: Writers may separate items in a series with
(a) commas, (b) seriation, or (c) bulleted lists.
• Parallel construction should be followed

23

Writing Style
• Achieving Continuity
– Use proper punctuation to show relationships
between ideas
• Ex: A recent survey of Behavioral Science and
Psychology majors showed that although most
students were completing their degrees to get better
jobs, and even though they were indecisive as to
what they would continue to study, many of the
students were also interested in going to graduate
school.
– Notice how the commas help to clarify the ideas
24

Writing Style: Transitional Words
and Phrases


Expressing Ideas Clearly & Smoothly
• Abruptness in writing is usually caused by:
– Monotony in sentence patterns
– Sudden shifts in verb tenses
– Use of noun strings
– Use of synonyms
• Can avoid abruptness by varying sentence
patterns


Varying Sentence Patterns
Examples of Simple Sentences: Each has 1 main idea

• The purpose of this research is to understand the
reactions of caretakers to their children’s mishaps
at the playground.
• The proposed research method is ethnography.
• Ethnography allows researchers to both observe
and question subjects.
• I plan to observe and question the subjects at a
local playground.
• I will observe over a one month time period.
Copyright 2009 Johanna P. Bishop, Hockessin, Delaware 27

Sentence Structure
• Simple sentence
– S-V (and sometimes object)
– Example:
• The purpose of this research is to understand the reactions of
caretakers to their children’s mishaps at the playground.
• Some students like to listen to music when they study.
• Teachers and students read a lot in order to be knowledgeable
scholars.
• Students in the social sciences are expected to understand
research methods and suggest appropriate methods .
• Notice how the subject and verb match in number: Plural
subjects take plural verbs and singular subjects take
singular verbs

Compound Sentences
• Compound sentences
– 2 simple sentences connected by a FANBOYS
– Example:
• I plan to observe and question the subjects at a local
playground, and I will observe over a one month time
period.
• Quantitative research approaches tend to use surveys to
collect data which can be generalized to the larger
population, but the extended interview method focuses on
gathering in-depth knowledge about a phenomena from a
small number of participants.
• Surveys can yield a great deal of data from many research
participants, yet interview data from a few people will
provide rich details about the phenomena being studied.


FANBOYS
• Coordinating • For
conjunctions: • And
– Connect two or more • Nor
separate thoughts
• But
• Or
• Yet
• So


Complex Sentences
• Complex Sentences
– Have 2 or more ideas, but one or more of those
ideas is subordinate (less important) to the
main idea
– Examples:
• When I handed in my paper, I forgot to submit the
reference page.
• I forgot to submit the reference page when I
handed in my paper.
• Because I wanted to avoid any late penalties, even
though I forgot to write the reference page, I
handed in my paper.

Compound-Complex Sentences
• Compound- Complex Sentence
– 2 or more independent clauses with a dependent clause
– Example:

Joe forgot all about the test, but when he
remembered, he crammed quickly in the hopes
that he would pass.


Punctuation Pattern Sheet

::::: ;;;;; ,,,,, ::::: ;;;;; ,,,,,

Varying Sentence Structure
• The following sentences have a variety of sentence
patterns, thus making this paragraph much easier to
absorb:
– The purpose of this research is to understand the reactions of
caretakers to their children’s mishaps at the playground using an
ethnographic approach. The proposed research method will be to use
an ethnographic approach because it allows researchers to both
observe and question subjects. I plan to conduct naturalistic
observations at a local playground over one month period of
time, following each observation with a brief survey of the caretaker
subjects to determine their relationship to the child.


Use of Appropriate Verb Tenses
• Use the past tense (i.e. Bishop showed…) or present
perfect tense (i.e. Bishop has shown…) for the
literature review and the description of the
procedure if the discussion is of past events
– Stay within the chosen tense and do not deviate from it
• Use past tense (i.e. efficacy significantly
increased…) to describe the results
• Use the present tense (i.e. these findings indicate…)
to discuss the implications and present the
conclusions


Cleaning Up Noun Strings &
Synonyms
• A noun string is a series of nouns used one after
another to modify a final noun
– Ex: new employee training outage radiation protection
safeguard procedure
• A way to fix noun strings is to move the last word
to the beginning of the string and use prepositions,
etc to create a more coherent phrase
– Ex: The procedure, which trains new employees about
radiation protection in an outage, must be safely
guarded.
• Be careful of using synonyms– they can create
unintentional confusion and inadvertently change
subtle meanings

Tone: Setting the Right Attitude
• Just as spoken words have a tone
depending upon the setting or the
context of your conversation, your
writing also has a “tone”
• Business writing or academic writing
take on a more formal “tone” than do
personal letters, emails, or text
messages
• Developing the proper “tone” is
important in gaining credibility as an
academic writer
• Think about a specific person to whom
you want to write this paper… write to
educate and persuade!
• Remember why you are writing…


• In scholarly writing
More on Tone authors often point out
different positions
• The research reports taken by various
published in the scholarly theorists
journals you will be – These must be
required to read will have presented in a
a more formal tone professional, non-
• You may also notice combative manner
differences in the tone of – Acceptable example:
the writings from journal • “Miller did not address…”
to journal – Not acceptable:
• “Miller completely
overlooked…”

38

Economy of Expression:
Wordiness & Redundancy
• “Say only what needs to be
said” (APA, 2009, p. 67)
• Do not try to impress
readers by being verbose
• Write simply, write clearly
and above all, avoid these
wordy expressions!

“Eventually you
will get used
to this more
formal writing
style…” 39

Unit Length- Where the Twain Shall Meet?
Both Sentences & Paragraphs Constitute a Unit

• Writing in short sentences
produces a choppiness that
makes the writer sound like a
third grader
• Writing long sentences
produces confusion and
obscures meaning
• Writing ¶ longer than a page
confuses readers
– Break up ¶ into meaningful units


More On Unit Length: So What’s A
Unit?
• Single sentence paragraphs are too abrupt, and
lack depth
• Paragraphs that are too long are likely to lose a
reader’s attention
• “A new paragraph provides a pause for the
reader– a chance to assimilate one step in the
conceptual development before beginning
another” (p. 68)
• Avoid paragraphs that run longer than “one
double-spaced manuscript page” (p. 68)


Precision and Clarity
• Word choice: make certain that every word
means exactly what you intend it to mean
– Informal writing: words such as feel are often used by
students as substitutes for think or believe:
unacceptable in scholarly writing
• Colloquial expressions: be careful that you write
clearly and do not use spoken expressions that are
approximations (ex: practically, very, very
few, etc)
• Jargon: this is the use of technical vocabulary
even where its use is not relevant
42

Clarity…
• Pronouns: pronouns such • Comparisons: ambiguous
as this, that, these, and or illogical comparisons
those can be confusing if occur when key words are
readers have to search for missing or when non-
their referents in a parallel structures are
previous sentence; use used
nouns instead or make • Ex:
specific references – “Ten-year-olds were more
likely to play with age peers
than 8-year-olds” (p. 86)
– “Her salary was lower than a
convenience store clerk” (p.
69)

43

More on clarity…
• Attribution:
– Inappropriate attribution would be to use the
third person, anthropomorphism, and use of the
editorial we
• Third person: “to avoid ambiguity, use a personal
pronoun rather than the third person when
describing steps take in your experiment” (p. 69)
– Correct: “We reviewed the literature…”
– Incorrect: “The authors reviewed the literature…”
• Anthropomorphism: do not attribute human
qualities to inanimate objects or animals
– Experiments cannot “attempt to demonstrate” or
“compare”
44

And Finally Clarity…
• Editorial “We”: Restrict the use of “we” for
only yourself and your coauthors; clarify
usage by substituting appropriate nouns, etc
– Ex:
• Correct: “Researchers usually classify birdsong on
the basis of frequency and temporal structure of the
elements.”
• Incorrect: “We usually classify birdsong…” (p. 69)


Linguistic Devices
• “Devices that attract attention to words, sounds, or other
embellishments instead of to ideas are inappropriate in
scientific writing” (p. 70)
– Avoid heavy alliteration
– Use metaphors sparingly
– Avoid mixed metaphors
– Use figurative expressions with restraint
– Colorful expressions with care
• Note that academic writing is not the same as creative
writing
– Academic writing usually requires writing according to a specific
format, uses citations, supports evidence with referenced
materials, and uses a more formal tone and language
– Creative writing is writing as an expression of the writer; rules and
conventions are different from academic writing
46

Reducing Bias in Language
• APA advises writers to use specific language
– i.e. do not use man to refer to all human beings
• Use “men and women”
• Be sensitive to issues of labeling when describing ethnic
and minority groups
– i.e. Chinese Americans or Korean Americans instead of
Asian Americans
– Use gay men and lesbians
– Be careful about terms such as “borderline” or “at risk”


Reducing Language Bias
• Gender is cultural
• Sexual is biological
• Differences should be mentioned only when it is relevant
(p. 71)
• Respect people’s preferences; call them what they prefer to
be called
• Avoid labeling people when possible
– i.e. the elderly use instead elderly people
– Use adjectival forms such as amnesic patients (put the
adjective before the noun)

48

Acknowledging Participation
• Use “participants” or • Reducing bias by topic
“subjects” – Use specific nouns or
• Use the past verb tense pronouns
:the subjects completed – Avoid using term “man”
the trial” instead of “the to mean both genders;
subjects were given the be specific
survey” – Recast in the plural
• Avoid the term “failed” – Do not use “opposite
because it implies sex” but do use “other
personal shortcomings sex”

49

Reducing Bias by Gender &
Ethnicity
• “Sexual orientation” • Racial and Ethnic
– Use this term rather Identity
than “sexual – Terms like Black and African
preference” American are now preferred
– Do not use the Black race or
– Terms like gay men,
the White race as this
bisexual men, bisexual perpetuates stereotypes
women are preferable – Proper nouns and
to homosexual capitalized
– When using the word
minority preface it with an
adjective

50

Reducing Bias by Disability or
Age
• Disabilities • Age
– Avoid language that – Girl and boy are correct for
objectifies a person by his/ individuals under 12 years
her condition – Young man and young
– Use people first language woman for 13-17 years
• i.e. “person with – 18 years or older use men
paraplegia” or “youth and women
with autism” – Do not use generational
– Avoid euphemisms such as descriptors unless it is
special, physically related to the study or the
challenged, handi-capable topic
– Older adults is preferred to
elderly
– Use dementia instead of
senility 51

Grammar & Usage
• Use the active rather Preferred
than passive voice We conducted the
• Select tense and mood survey in a controlled
carefully setting
• Passive voice Not Preferred
acceptable only when The survey was
you want to focus on conducted in a
the recipient of the controlled setting
action rather than on
the actor
52

The Passive Voice
• Passive: • When should the passive
– Acceptable when the be used?
focus is on the object or 1. When it is more important
to draw attention to the
recipient of the action person or thing acted upon
rather than on the actor 2. When the actor in the
– Ex of passive: situation is unimportant
• “The participants were • The passive voice is more
asked about their appropriately used in the
experiences in foster
care.”
methods section of APA
papers (p. 77).


Select Tense Carefully
• The English language uses verb tenses to
show time
• Basic English verb tenses are present, past
and future
– It is a nice day (present tense)
– It was a nice day yesterday (past tense)
– Hopefully, it will be a nice day tomorrow (future tense)


Select Tense Carefully
• Use the past tense to describe an action that
occurred in the past at a specific time in the
past, whether describing another
researcher’s work or your research results
– Smith (2003) reported that…
– The data indicated…


The Simple Past Tense
• Use the past tense to express an action or a
condition that
– occurred at a specific, definite time in the past,
• as when discussing another searcher’s work, or
• when reporting your own results

Brown & Smith (2001) reported that ….
Thurstdale’s (2003) study showed…

56

Using the Present Perfect Tense
• Use the present perfect tense to
– express a past action or condition that did not
occur at a specific time
– Or to describe an action beginning in the past
and continuing until the present
Examples

Incorrect Correct
Since that time, several researchers Since that time, several researchers
used the qualitative interview have used the qualitative interview
method… method…

Prepared by Johanna P. Bishop 2009 57
This slide show was prepared to accompany the APA Style manual 6th edition and is intended as an introduction to the 6th edition manual. It is not
intended to replace the 6th edition in any way. Students are encouraged to read the 6th edition.

Selecting the Appropriate Mood
• The subjunctive mood refers to those expressions that are conditional”
that is, they are not certain and may consist of wishful thinking, things
the speaker may hope or imagines to happen, or events not likely to
happen
• The subjunctive verb tense:
– Use this tense only to describe conditions that are contrary to fact or
improbable (conditional)
– Do not use this tense to describe simple conditions or contingencies

Examples

Incorrect Correct

If the experiment was not designed If the experiment were not
this way, the results could not be designed this way, the results could
interpreted properly not be interpreted properly


Using “Would”

• Use would with care!
• Would could be used to mean habitually, as in “the
instructor would sternly look about the classroom”
• Or it could be used to express a conditional action, as in “I
would fix it if I could…”
• Do not use would to hedge; for example change “it would
appear that…” to “it appears that…”
– Hedging is not acceptable in academic writing
– Always write statement that can be supported with data or expert
opinions

59

Agreement of Subject and Verb
• Subjects and verbs must agree in number,
regardless of intervening phrases
• The plural form of some verbs end in “a”
and may cause agreement confusion
– “The data indicate that Terrence was correct”

60

Pronouns
• Pronouns replace • Problems with
nouns pronouns: Gender and
– Each pronoun should WHO-THAT
refer clearly to its – Use neutral pronouns
antecedent and should for animals unless the
agree with the animal has been names
antecedent in number and the gender is
and gender known
Each student should do
their own work
– Use who for human
– Each student should do beings
his/her own work – Use that for things

Pronouns as Subjects & Objects
Personal & Relative Pronouns

• Subjects • Object
– Who is the subject of – Whom is the object of
the verb the verb
• “Name the participant • “The student whom I
who you found achieved identified as a personable
score above the median.” young man has dropped
• You can determine whether e out of school.”
relative pronoun is the subject or
object of the verb by turning the
sentence around and
substituting a personal pronoun
“You found he or she achieved scores
above the median”


Misplaced and Dangling
Modifiers
• Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers
– Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns
• Adjectives tell which one, how many, or what kind a
thing is
– Adverbs modify verb, adjectives, or other
adverbs; often end in “-ly”
• Adverbs tell how, to what extend, how much
“This longitudinal research study was conducted effortlessly
by a team of graduate students.”


Parallel Construction
• Using the same pattern of words or sentences to show that
2 or more ideas have the same level of importance
• Within a sentence:
– Good students read their books, write papers on time, and attend
classes regularly.
– Owning a pet means taking care of the animal’s physical needs,
providing for the animal’s environmental welfare, and monitoring
the animal’s behavior.
• Within a paper: parallel construction for main ideas show
each idea has equal weight. Below are main points for a
paper about newcomer socialization:
1. Understanding the experiences of organizational newcomers will
provide information for improving new hire orientation.
2. Identifying the knowledge needs of organizational newcomers
can focus new hire training programs.
Copyright Johanna P. Bishop 200i 64

. Mechanics (pp. 87-124)
• Spacing after punctuation marks:
– Insert one space after
• Commas, colons, and semicolons
• Periods that separate parts of a reference citation
• Periods of the initials in personal names (i.e. J. P.
Bishop)
• EXCEPTIONS:
– Do not insert a space after the internal periods within
abbreviations
– Space twice after punctuation marks at the end of a
sentence (However, modern technologies uses kerning to increase spaces at ends
of sentences)
65

Commas
• Use a comma
1. Between elements (including before and and
or) in a series of 3 or more items
2. To set off nonessential or restrictive clauses
3. To separate two independent clauses joined
by a conjunction
4. To set off the year in exact dates
5. To set of the year in a parenthetical citation
6. To separate groups of 3 digits in most
numbers above 1,000
66

Semi-Colon
• Use a semicolon
– To separate two independent clauses that are not
joined by a conjunction
• The first research study was conducted in 1953; the second was
duplicated in 2005.
– To separate elements in a series that already contain
commas
• Initially, the research study was intended to explore the relationship of
newcomers in organizations to the newcomer’s success and
organization’s productivity. However, as the study progressed , it
became obvious to the researchers that other variables such as
newcomer previous experience, educational level, and ability to adapt;
the supervisor’s prior experience in supervising untrained workers; and
the organization’s capacity for dealing with mistakes, were equally
important in determining the success of new hires.

67

Colon
• Use a colon
– Between a grammatically complete
introductory clause and a final phrase or clause
that extends the original clause
– If the clause following the colon is a complete
sentence, begin it with a capital letter
• For examples, Freud (1930/1961) wrote of two urges:
an urge toward union with others and an egoistic urge
toward happiness.
• They have agreed to the outcome: Informed
participants perform better than do uninformed
participants. 68

Colon
• Use a colon
– In ratios and proportions
• The proportion of young to old was 1:8
– In references between place of publication and
publisher
• St. Louis, MO: Mosby


Simple Apostrophes
• Apostrophes are NOT single quotation
marks!
• They are used to show:
– Possessives
• The class notes are in Joe’s book bag.
• Dr. Chang’s class is really interesting.
• Professor Jones’s lectures are really dull.
– Missing letters
• It’s been a long day.
• She’s been studying for the exam all night.
• I haven’t been doing well on my statistics quizzes.

Quotation Marks
• Use double quotation marks:
– To introduce a word or phrase used as an ironic
comment or an invented or coined expression
– To set of a title or chapter in a periodical or
book when the title is mentioned in the text
– To reproduce material from a test or verbatim
instructions to participants


Do NOT Use Double Quotation
Marks
• To identify the anchors of a scale; instead
italicize them
• To cite a letter, word, or paraphrase as a
linguistic examples; instead italicize the
term
• To introduce a technical or key term;
instead italicize the term
• To hedge; do not use any punctuation with
such expressions
72

Brackets & Parentheses
• Use brackets to enclose the values that are the limits of a
confidence interval
– Ex: 95% CIs [-7.2, 4.3], [9.2, 12.4], and [-1.2, -0.5]
• Enclose parenthetical material that is already within
parenthesis
– Ex: (The results of the control group [n= 8] are also presented in
Figure 2).
• Enclose material that is already within a quotation by some
other person other than the original writer
– Ex: “when [his own and others’] behaviors were studied” (Hanisch,
1992, p. 24)


Capitalization in Titles and
Headings
• Use an upper case letter for
– The first letter of a word beginning a sentence
– Major words in titles and headings
– Proper nouns and trade names
– Nouns followed by numerals or letters
– Titles of tests
– Names of conditions or groups in an experiment
– Names of factors, variables, and effects


Use of Italics
• Use italics for
– Titles of books, periodicals, films, TV shows, and
microfilm publications
– Genera, species, varieties
– Introduction of a new, technical, or key term
– A letter, word, or phrase cited as a linguistic example
– Words that could be misread
– Letters used as statistical symbols or algebraic
variables
– Some test score or scales
– Periodical volume numbers in reference lists
– Anchors of a scale

Abbreviations
• Use abbreviations sparingly
– Latin abbreviations
• Cf (compare); e.g. (for example); etc (and so forth)
– Scientific abbreviations
• See list of common abbreviations on p. 109
– Chemical compounds
– Concentrations
– Routes of administration
• When paired with a number/ unit combination

76

Plurals of Abbreviations
• “APA style permits the use of abbreviations that appear as
word entries (i.e., that are not labeled abbr) in Merriam-
Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2005). Such abbreviations
do not need an explanation in text” (p. 107).
• “To form the plural of most abbreviations and statistical
symbols, add s alone, but not italicized and without an
apostrophe” (p. 110).
– IOs Eds. vols. Ms ps ns
– To form the plural of the reference abbreviation p. (page), write pp.
• Never begin a sentence with a lowercase abbreviation or a
symbol that stands alone


Numbers
• Use numerals to express
– Numbers 10 and above
– Numbers in the abstract of a paper or in a graphical display within
a paper
– Numbers that immediately precede a unit of measurement
– Numbers that represent statistical or mathematical functions
– Numbers that represent time and dates, ages, scores on a scale,
exact sums of money
• Exceptions: use words to express approximations (e.g. about
three months ago)


Use Words to Express Numbers
• Use words to express numbers
– Any number that begins a sentence,
title, or text heading
– Common fractions
– Universally accepted usage
• Ex: The Twelve Apostles

79

. Displaying Results (pp. 125-167)
• Purposes of data displays
– Exploration: the data contain a message and you would like to
learn what it is
– Communication: you have discovered the meaning in the data
and want to tell others about it
– Calculation: the display allows you to estimate some statistic or
function of the data
– Storage: data is stored in a table for later retrieval, or you can display
this data for a meta-analysis
– Decoration: data displays attract attention and you may choose
them to make your manuscript more appealing
80

Design & Preparation of Data
Display
1. Determine the purpose of the display and relative
importance to these purposes
2. Design the graphical display with the reader in mind:
– Place items to be compared next to each other
– Place labels clearly so they abut the elements being
labeled
– Use fonts large enough to be read without
magnification
– Include all the info needed to make the display
understandable
– Keep them free of extraneous materials
81

Table and Figure Numbers
• Number all tables and figures with Arabic numerals in the
order in which they are first mentioned in the text
• Label them a Table 5, Table 6, Table 7 etc and NOT Table
5a, Table 5b, Table 5c
• If the manuscript includes an appendix with tables, identify
those elements in the appendix with capital letters and
Arabic numerals (e.g. Table A1)
• See more about requirements for tables and figures
beginning on p. 129 and subsequent pages

82

. Crediting Sources (pp.169-189)
• When to cite?
– Cite the work of those individuals whose
ideas, theories, or research influenced your
work
– Citation of an article implies that you have read
this work


Definition of plagiarism…
• “the unauthorized use or close imitation of the
language and thoughts of another author and the
representation of them as one's own original
work.”

• “to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of
another) as one's own : use (another's
production) without crediting the source”
• Source: Dictionary.com

• “to commit literary theft : present as new and
original an idea or product derived from an
existing source”
• Source: Plagiarize. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster Online
Dictionary. Retrieved 11/01/06 from http://www.m-
w.com/dictionary/plagiarizing

Wilmington University’s Policy…
Students of Wilmington College are expected to be honest and
forthright in their academic pursuits. It is inappropriate conduct
to falsify the results of research; include someone else’s
words, ideas or data as one’s own as well as one’s own
previously submitted work (plagiarism) without proper credit
being given. It is also inappropriate to intentionally use or invent
information or the falsification of research or other findings
(fabrication). When a student places his or her name on
submitted work, the student certifies the originality of all work
not otherwise identified by appropriate acknowledgements.
Additional information may be found in the Wilmington
University Student Handbook.

85

How to Avoid Plagiarism
• CITE while you write!
• Prepare an outline of your main ideas
• Take notes as you read
• Clearly mark material taken from source with
quotation marks, highlighter, or underlining in
your notes!
• Cite your sources- even when in doubt
• Avoiding plagiarism, whether intentional or
unintentional, is the student’s responsibility!

Basic APA Citation Style
• APA citation is a brief in-text citation (not a footnote)
– provides information on a text's author and date of
publication
• Keyed to a full reference in an alphabetical list of works
included at the end of the paper
– RED FLAG! If the citations in the text do not match the
reference page
• A complete bibliographic citation thus has two parts:
– (1) the in-text citation in the body of the
paper, and
– (2) the bibliographic reference in the list of
works cited

87

Using Quotes and Paraphrases
When to use citations…

• Cite when using quoted
material
• Cite when
paraphrasing
• Cite when using facts
or statistics
Citations are your friend!

88

Quoting & Paraphrasing
Short Quotes
Quotations fewer than 40 words in the middle of a sentence

Interpreting these results, Robbins et al. (2003)
suggested that the “therapists in dropout cases Place
may have inadvertently validated parental year close
to author
negativity about the adolescent without
adequately responding to the adolescent’s needs
or concerns” (p. 541), contributing to an overall
climate of negativity.
Place page numbers
right at the end of
quoted material


Section 6.06 Accuracy of Quotations
• Quotations must be accurate!
• If the quoted material contains any
spelling, grammar or punctuation
errors, insert the word sic in italics and
between brackets [sic] immediately after
the error


Quotations: Changes
• Section 6.07: Changes From the Source Requiring No Explanation:
– The first letter of the first word may be changed to an upper case or lower
case letter
– The punctuation mark at the end of a sentence may be changed to fit the
syntax (i.e. single quotation marks may be changed to double quotation
marks and vice versa)

• Section 6.08: Changes From the Source Requiring Explanation
– Omitting material: Use 3 spaced ellipsis (…) within a sentence to indicate
omitting material
• Use 4 to indicate omitting material between 2 sentences (….)
• Do not use ellipsis at the beginning or end of a quotation unless, to
prevent misinterpretation, you need to emphasize that the quotation
begins or ends in midsentence
– Inserting material: Use brackets to enclose material such as additional
explanations from someone other than the original author
– Adding emphasis: if you want to emphasize something in the quotation
italicize the key word(s) and insert within brackets the words [emphasis
added]


Short Quotes
Quotations less than 40 words
Quotations with citation at the end of a sentence
• Confusing the issue of overlapping nature of
roles in palliative care, whereby “medical
needs are met by those with medical
disciplines; nonmedical needs may be
addressed by anyone else on the team”
(Csikai & Chaitin, 2006, p. 112).
Notice the use of Notice the end
the ampersand punctuation mark


Block Quotes
Quotations of 40 or more words

• Long quotations (40 or more words) are set off in
a freestanding block of text (p. 171)
• Omit the quotation marks
• Start the block quotation on a new line
• Indent the block a half inch from the left margin
(same indentation as a new ¶)
– If there are additional paragraphs within the quotation
indent the first line of each ¶ an additional half inch)
– Double-space the entire quotation
– At end of block quotation cite the source after the final
punctuation mark

Example of a Block Quote
According to Greenberg (2001), two different criteria were
proposed to determine brain death: the higher-brain and the
whole-brain concepts. He describes the higher-brain formulation
as follows:
A brain-dead person is alleged to be dead because his neo-
cortex, the seat of consciousness, has been destroyed. He has
thus lost the ability to think and feel — the capacity for
personhood - that makes us who we are, and our lives worth
Notice the living.
indentation
of the new ¶ In the Brown case the parents argued that their daughter
was responsive through her eye movement, but later medical
evidence would shown this was due to an involuntary muscular
action. (pp. 37-38)
Notice the end-
punctuation

Direct Quotations of Online Material
Without Pagination
• Many online sources do not have page numbers
• If paragraph numbers are visible, then use them in
place of page numbers
• Use the abbreviation para.
• If the online document uses headings and has no
pages or paragraph numbers cite the heading and
the number of the paragraph following the
heading
• If the headings is very long, then use a short title
for the heading and place it in quotation marks

Direct Quotations of Online Material
Without Pagination- 2
In their study, Verbunt, Pernot, and Smeets (2008)
found that “the level of perceived disability in
patients with fibromyalgia seemed best explained by
their mental health condition and less by their
physical condition” (Discussion section, para. 1).

“Empirical studies have found mixed results on the
efficacy of labels in educating consumers and
changing consumption behavior” (Golan, Kuchler,
& Krissof, 2007, “Mandatory Labeling Has
Targeted,” para. 4).


Citations Within Quotations
• Do not omit citations embedded within the
original material you are quoting
• The works cited need not be included in the list of
references unless you happen to cite them as
primary sources elsewhere in your paper

“In the United States, the American Cancer Society
(2007) estimated that about 1 million cases of NMSC
and 59,940 cases of melanoma would be diagnosed in
2007, with melanoma resulting in 8,110 deaths”
(Miller, et al., 2009, p. 209).


Citing References in Text
2 kinds of material are cited only in the text
(and not on the list of References at the end of the paper)
1. References to classical works
2. References to personal communications


Formatting Citations in the Text
• Author-date method requires the author’s last
name be used followed by the year of publication
– Ex: Bishop (2008) examined…
• Much of the collective memory of record in
an organization resides in in the
organization’s documents (Bishop, 2008)…
• If the author’s name appears as part of the
narrative of the text, then only the year is included
in parenthetical citation
– Ex: Among collective memory studies,
Zerubavel (1996) is noted for the cognitive
sociological approach…


Formatting Citations in the Text- 2
• When a work has 2 authors, cite both names
every time the reference occurs in the text
• When a work has 3, 4, 5 authors cite all the
authors the first time the reference occurs,
but include only the first author, followed
by et al. in subsequent citations
• Precede the final name in running text by
the word “and” but use “&” in tables,
captions, and reference list


Formatting Citations- 3
• Authors with the same surnames
– Include the author’s initials in all in-text citations
• Works with no identified author or with
anonymous author
– Cite in-text the first few words of the reference list
entry (usually the title) and the year
• Use double quotation marks around the title of the
article, chapter, or webpage
• Italicize the title of a periodical, a book, brochure or a report
• Two or more works within the same parenthesis
– Order citations of two or more works within the same
parenthesis alphabetically in the same order they
appear on the reference list


Citing Websites in the Text
• How do you cite an entire website (but not a
specific document on that site)?
– APA says “when citing an entire website, it is
sufficient to give the address of the site in just
the text.”
– Example:
• The Nuclear Energy website is a wonderful source for
information about nuclear power
(http://library.thinkquest.org/3471/nuclear_energy.h
tml).

Citing Website Material With No
Author, No Year, No Page Numbers
• From APA FAQs: “How do you cite website material that has no author,
no year, and no page numbers?”
• Because the material does not include page numbers, you can include
any of the following in the text to cite the quotation:
– A paragraph number, if provided (count ¶s from the beginning of the
document)
– An overarching heading plus a ¶ number within that section
– A short title in quotation marks, in cases in which the heading is too
unwieldy to cite in full
• Because there is no date and no author, the in-text citation would
include the title, “n.d.” for no date, and ¶ number.
– Socialization. (n.d.). In Dictionary. com. Retrieved from
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/socialization .


Citing Email Communications
• From APA FAQs: “How do you cite email
communications?”
– Email communications from individuals should
be cited as personal communications.
– Because they do not provide recoverable data,
personal communications should not be placed
on the reference list.
– Examples:
• M. S. Berridge (personal communication, March 25,
2010)

104

Paraphrasing & Citing
• You cannot present someone
else’s work as your own- to do so
is theft and constitutes plagiarism
• Must use citations for
paraphrased materials
• Follow the rules for formatting
citations just as you would format
direct quotes
• Note that the paraphrased
material must be significantly
different in order to count as a
paraphrase!
105

Quotation Problems…

• Floating quotations are
problems because they appear to
be simply “sprinkled” throughout
the text of a paper without
signaling their purpose
• Quotations should be
“anchored” using lead-in
materials
106

What Does It Look Like?
Example of a paragraph using floating quotations…

• The following ¶ has floating quotations:
“The lesson of the Columbia disaster is clear to all but the
most diehard supporters” (Cabbage & Harwood, 2004, p.
296). Whether or not NASA will heed recommendations of
the CAIB report remains to be seen. “In the absence of a
coherent national space strategy, NASA… will remain mired
in low Earth orbit” (p. 296). “The Columbia accident has left
NASA at a crossroads” (p. 297).

107

Anchoring Floating Quotations
Example of correctly anchored quotations in a paragraph…

• Whether or not NASA will heed recommendations of the
CAIB report remains to be seen as “The lesson of the
Columbia disaster is clear to all but the most diehard
supporters” (Cabbage & Harwood, 2004, p. 296).

• Vaughan’s (1996) sociological perspective and analysis of
the Challenger disaster introduced the concept of
“normalization of deviance” (p. 119) in which acceptance of
equipment specifications that were outside the engineering
design boundaries became the norm.

108

Using A Lead-In: A “Lead In” is a phrase that
establishes the authority or credibility of the source…

Lead-in at the beginning: Lead-in at the end:
• World class is defined by • “Unskilled and poorly
Rosabeth Moss Kanter, educated workers will face
Harvard Business multiple threats in
Professor and author of tomorrow’s labor
World Class: Thriving markets” according to a
Locally in the Global federal government-
Economy, as having the funded study published by
following characteristic: to the think-tank Hudson
be world class is to be a Institute (1997, p. 49).
card-carrying
cosmopolitan (1995, p. Note that both direct quotes and
paraphrased material requires a lead-
22). in.
109

Importance of Introducing Quoted or
Paraphrased Material
• Signals the reader that the words you are about to use are not your
own
• Provides information about why this material is important
– Ie. Credibility of the study or the author
• Listed below are suggested words/phrases to use:

acknowledges comments emphasizes reasons
adds compares endorses refutes
admits confirms grants rejects
agrees contends illustrates reports
argues declares implies responds
asserts denies insists suggests
believes disputes notes thinks
claims observes writes
points out
110

Using Secondary Sources
• What is it?
– Using cited material from an original source
• What is the potential problem?
– Unintentional plagiarism
– Giving the impression that you have read the
original source
• What should you do?
– Either READ the original source, OR cite it as a
secondary source!
111

Secondary Sources

• Use secondary sources sparingly
– Such as when the original work is out of print,
unavailable through usual sources, or not available in
English
– In the reference list use the secondary source
– In the text, name the original source but list the
secondary source in the citation
• Ex: Allport’s diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003)


How to cite secondary sources…
in APA Style
• …advises you to name the original work in the text and to
provide a parenthetical citation for the secondary source
• Example:
– "This hypothesis was proven by Brown and Clark
(as cited in Harris, 1995)."
• On your References page, list the source that you
actually used, which, in this case, would be Harris.

This information was taken from:
Dartmouth College copyright © 1998
www.dartmouth.edu/~sources/faq/secondary.html
113

Primary & Secondary Sources
• Primary Sources • Secondary Sources
– Original material – Analysis, interpretations, or
• Autobiographies commentaries on primary
• Court cases material
• Letters – Biographies (secondary
• Newspaper accounts of an courses about people’s
event lives)
• Official memoranda
• Original research articles
• Speeches
• Statistics
• Experimental research data
• Empirical research data

114

Classical Works
• When a date of publication is unavailable,
such as for some very old works, cite the
year of translation you used preceded by
trans.
– (Aristotle, trans. 1931)
• Or the year of the version you used followed
by version
– James (1890/ 1983)

115

. References (pp. 193-223)
• Chapter 7 of the 6th edition of the APA style
manual provides specific examples of all kinds of
references and how they should be formatted
• We will cover only the most common types of
references:
– Books
– Magazine articles
– Peer reviewed journal article paginated by issue
– Peer reviewed journal article with continuous
pagination
– Internet sources

Section 7.01 Periodicals
(p. 198-202)

• General reference form:
– Author, A. A., Author, B. B.,& Author, C. C. (year). Tile of article. Title
of Periodical, xx, pp-pp. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx
• Include Digital Object Identifier in the reference if one is
assigned
• If no doi is assigned to the content and you retrieved it
online, include the home page for the URL for the journal,
newsletter, or magazine in the reference
– Use this format: Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxxx
• If each issue of a journal begins on page 1, give the issue
number in parenthesis immediately after the volume
number


Journal Articles With DOI- Either
Hard Copy or Online
Schorre, C. (2005). Establish medical products trade
in Asia. American Marketing Journal, 23, 483-496.
doi: 10.1036/0005-7632.56.3.483

• NOTE: Even though this article was retrieved from the
Business Elite database, no database URL is needed.
– The DOI functions as the unique identifier of the object. It also
replaces the URL as a link to the content.


Journal Article Paginated by
Issue- Hard Copy
Smith, D. E. (2001). Change management in rigid
systems. The Academy of Management Review,
45(2), 156-165.

Paginated by issue means
Notice there is no space that each issue of this
journal begins with page
between the italicized 1, whereas in journals
volume number and the with continuous
issue number pagination, each issue
continues the page
numbers where previous
issues left off

119

Journal Article with Continuous
Pagination- Hard Copy

Courtois, B. J. (2007). Complex trauma complex reactions:
Assessment and treatment. Psychotheraphy
Practice, 41, 312-334.

Note that the
volume number is Notice there is no
italicized along with issue number after
the title of the the volume number
journal


Online Journal Article With No DOI
Assigned
Schorre, C., & Paasche, J. (2006). Intercultural
communication awareness and international
marketing success. E-journal of Applied
Marketing Research, 2(2), 27-39. Retrieved from
http://ojs.lib.wilm.edu/index.php/ejap/article/v
iew/56/102

• NOTE: No retrieval date is included. The article
referenced is the final version.

Article in a Monthly Magazine
Notice the order of the year
and month

Duenwald, W. (2005, January). The psychology of
social relationships. Discover, 26(3), 15-18.

122

Online Magazine NOT Found in Print
Version
Trate, K. (n.d.). Socialization of new officers. Police
Chief of Tomorrow. Retrieved from
http://www.polchiedtomm.org/magazine/special
s/socializationnewofficers


Newspaper Articles
• Online newspaper articles:
Sitler, L.R. (2001, February 28). Changing policies in victim’s rights.
The Wilmington Beacon. Retrieved from
http://www.wilmbeacon.com

• Print version newspaper articles:
Author, A. B. (2007, December 12). Title of article. The Wilmington
Beacon, pp. A-2, A-7.

Note the pp. for page numbers; if
the article appears on
discontinuous pages, then separate
the numbers with a comma

Newspaper Editorials
• Editorial without a signature:
Editorial: We can all do our part to protect our children
[Editorial]. (2010). Sunday News Journal, p. A-26.


Newsletters
• Online newsletter article with no author:
Human performance improvement initiatives in high
hazard industries. (2004, July/August). HPI At-A-Glance.
Retrieved from
http//www.hpigov/html/hpinews_at_glance/0708200
4/topstory/html
• The exact URL is helpful here because newsletter articles become
more difficult to locate over time as they tend to disappear.

126

Section 7.02 Books, Reference
Books, and Book Chapters
• Book with doi:
Author, A. A. (2006). Title of work. doi: xxxxxxxxx
• Edited book:
Author, A. A. (Ed.). (1999). Title of work.
Location: Publisher.
• Electronic-only book:
Author, A. A. (n.d.). Title of work. Retrieved from
http//www.xxxxxxxxxxxx/xxx


Book

• Book by 1 author…
Feldman, L. (1998). You can feel good again. Delaware
City, DE: St. George’s Press.

• Book by 2 authors…
Sitler, L. R. & Trate, K. R. (2009). Dealing with victims of
violent crimes. Delaware City, DE: Eastern Criminology
Press.

128

Electronic Version of Print Book
• For entire books online:
Platteschorre, K. (2001). Restoring Endurance class
sailboats 3rd edition. [DX Reader version]. Retrieved
from
http://www.eduranceclassdesigns/restoration.com
Rottier, J. (1961). A narrative analysis of motherless
children. [Adobe Digital version]. doi:
10.1036/0061393722


Chapter in a Book
• Print version
Bishop, J.P. & Fuller, S.R. (2006). Chapter 3 Providing elderly
palliative care: Making the transition from child to parenting
the parent. In J.P. Bishop (Ed.), Role switching across the life
cycle (pp. 102-132). Philadelphia: Surlag.

• Online version
Bishop, J.P. & Fuller, S.R. (2006). Chapter 3 Providing elderly
palliative care: Making the transition from child to parenting
the parent. In J.P. Bishop (Ed.), Role switching across the life
cycle (pp. 102-132). doi: xxxxxx
– If there are no page numbers, then the chapter title is
sufficient.

130

Online Dictionary

Taunting. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary.
Retrieved from http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/taunting


Section 7.03 Technical or Research
Reports
• Technical and research reports may cover original material but are not
necessarily peer-reviewed
• Format references to technical and research reports as you would a
book
• Print version:
Author, A. A. (2003). Title of report (Report No. xxxx). Location: Publisher.
• Online version:
Bishop, J.P., & Domenico, J. E. (2007). Performance indicators for training programs
using the SAT method (Report No. INPO 2006-43). Retrieved from Institute for
Performance Improvement Statistics: http://inpo.pif.org/pubs2007/200743.pdf
Include the agency in
the retrieval
statement

• NOTE: The report number is provided in parenthesis. Some reports may not have
report numbers. In that case, no report number would be included in the
reference entry.

Corporate Author, Government
Report
• Report retrieved online:

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of
Health, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. (2003). Managing
asthma: A guide for schools. (NIH Publication No. 02-2650).
Retrieved from
http://www.nhibi.nih.gove/health/prof/lung/asthma/asth_sch.pdf


Government Document

• Report print form:
US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of
Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.(2003). Managing
shortness of breath and other lung conditions (NIH Report No. 09-
2345). Washington, DC: Author.

Note the use of “Author”


Webpage With No Author
• From the APA FAQs “How do you reference a webpage that lists no
author?”
• When there is no author for a webpage, the title moves to first position
on the reference entry.
• Examples:
– Climate change. (2010). Retrieved March 25, 2010, from
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/
– Cite in the text the first few words of the reference entry (if it is a
long one) and the year.
• Use double quotation marks around the title or abbreviated title:
(“Climate Change,” 2010).
• Use the full title of the webpage if it is short.
• Articles found on the web are not italicized in the reference entry and
are not italicized but enclosed in quotation marks in the in-text
citation, just like a newspaper or magazine article.


Order of the Main Sections of
Academic Papers
• Title page Most
• Abstract Undergrad
Papers
• Text of the paper
– Citations
• Reference page
• Appendices
• Author identification notes
Most
• Footnotes Graduate
• Tables Papers
• Figures

For Good Measure: just a few things you
should know to help you be a better writer…

• Stages of the writing process
• Outlining the paper
• Unity & Coherence
• Structuring A Paper
• Paragraph Structure
• Rhetorical Modes
• The “You” Factor


Stages of the Writing Process
REVISING STAGE:
•Rearranging ideas and paragraphs
•Adding/deleting information

Each stage narrows the topic
•Editing/ proofreading the results

DRAFTING STAGE:
•Writing a draft and arranging ideas

PREWRITING STAGE:
•Thinking about the topic
•Webbing or clustering ideas
•Outlining aspects of the topic
•Making lists of things to include


Pre-Writing Stage: Developing
Ideas/ Narrowing the Topic

139

Outlining Your Paper
Write 2-4 Main Ideas that will be developed in the body of
your paper
I. Main idea # 1
A. Divide main idea # 1 into several parts
1. Subsidiary idea to A
It is up to the writer to
2. Subsidiary idea to A decide how many ideas
B. Divide main idea # 1 into several parts should be developed or sub-
1. Subsidiary idea to B divided in the paper. Each
2. Subsidiary idea to B sub-idea can be developed
II. Main idea # 2 using one of the rhetorical
A. Divide main idea # 2 into several parts modes, or logic and
1. Subsidiary idea to A reasoning, facts, statistics, et
2. Subsidiary idea to A c.
B. Divide main idea # 2 into several parts

III. Main idea # 3 (continue dividing as in I & II above)
A. Divide main idea # 3 into several parts
B. Divide main idea # 3 into several parts


Unity & Coherence
Organize ¶ in logical order so that the ideas flow…

• First, you must decide • Now choose a pattern or
what evidence to put into order of arranging your
a ¶: ideas in the ¶:
– Examples & Illustrations – Least-important-to-most-
– Facts & statistics important
– Quotations from experts – Most-important-to-least-
– Comparisons & contrasts important
– Reasons & results – Chronological (time order)
– Details & facts – Spatial order
– Definitions of terms – Compare and/or contrast
– Explain a process
– Explain a cause and effect

141

For Good Measure: (Not in the APA style
manual, but advice for writing good papers)

• Arrange your thoughts in well-
organized ¶s
• Be sure to include a thesis
statement in the introductory ¶
• Develop 2-4 main ideas in the essay
• Support each main idea with facts,
examples, statistics, statements
from experts, reasoning,
description, etc.
• Don’t forget to “wrap things up”
with a well-organized conclusion

Structuring Good Papers
Introduction Body Conclusion
•Attention-getting •Main ideas (2-4) •Summarize the
opener •Each main idea content of the paper
•Background supporter with •Rephrase the thesis
information paragraphs statement
•Thesis statement •Each ¶ organized •End with a
around 1 idea or topic compelling statement
•Each ¶ begins with a that will make readers
topic sentence and remember this paper!
developed with
rhetorical patterns or
facts, statistics, or
expert opinions


For Good Measure: (Not in the APA style
manual, but advice for writing good papers)

• Rhetorical Modes: • Argumentation
writing strategy and a • Description
way to present a topic • Narration
• Each is a technique • Extended definition
that can be used in a
paragraph as a means • Comparison & contrast
of paragraph • Cause & effect
development • Process analysis
• Classification
• Exemplification

Writing Well-Developed Paragraphs
Writing a good paragraph, essay, or
longer paper is much like cooking:
you need to plan (establish time to
work on the assignment), gather the
ingredients (do background reading
and organize your notes), and then
mix the ingredients together in a
systematic fashion (write the first
draft).

• Topic sentence
– 3-5 sentences of supporting
material
• Summarizing, or transition
Copyright Johanna P. Bishop 2009
sentence 145

4 Roles of Sentences in A
Paragraph
• Sentences in a paragraph serve the
following roles:
– As a topic sentence that explains the main idea
of the paragraph
– As supporting sentences that elaborate on the
topic sentence with facts, etc
– As explanations of why those facts, etc
presented support the topic sentence
– As a transition or summary sentence

The “You” Factor
• Academic writing is more formal than the spoken
word. Therefore, we should not write the way we
speak.
• An example is the use of the pronoun “you.”
Tempting as it is to use, this pronoun has no place
in academic papers, unless writing directions for a
process paper.
• Another reason to avoid the pronoun “you” is that
it is too informal. This informality destroys the
objective position required in all academic papers.

The “You” Factor- 2
The following example illustrates
this point:
Preferred writing:
Do NOT use: Feelings of social alienation and
Studying feelings of alienation has social connectedness have been
been an important topic for social studied by theorists and researchers
science researchers. They have alike. Finding the answer to the
looked for answers to causes of question “what causes feelings of
alienation. When you read isolation?” has been the focus of
Durkheim, Weber, and Mills, you can thought among Durkheim, Weber,
see how they approached the subject and Mills. Especially relevant for
in different ways. The topic is today’s society in which internet use
important for today’s society, has weakened social connections,
because as you may know the exploring the causes of alienation
internet has the ability to make you according to Durkheim, Weber, and
feel connected even when you’re not. Mills may provide insights for today’s
sociologist. 148

Avoiding “You” In Reflection
Papers
• A reflection papers asks students to write about
something and then provide insights on the topic.
• Reflection papers should be well-organized, and
include references from the text or supporting
evidence to provide substance to your reflection.
• Reflections are analytical. To analyze is to take apart
and examine something in detail.
• It is an opportunity to explain why you like, dislike, or
how you otherwise think about a topic, and explain
why!
• Avoid expressions such as “I think,” “I feel,” and “I
believe” … focus on the issues.
149

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