Units of selection

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Overview In simpler terms, Evolutionary Genetics is the study to understand how genetic variation leads to evolutionary change.  Evolutionary Genetics attempts to account for evolution in terms of changes in gene and genotype frequencies within populations and the processes that convert the variation with populations into more or less permanent variation between species.  The central challenge of Evolutionary Genetics is to describe how the evolutionary forces shape the patterns of biodiversity.  Evolutionary Genetics majorly deals with; a. Evolution of genome structure b. The genetic basis of speciation and adaptation c. Genetic change in response to selection within populations

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Chapter 2 The Genetic and Evolutionary Roots of Behavior ©2011 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Gleitman • Gross • Reisberg Psychology EIGHTH EDITION * * Henrik Spohler/laif/Redux Chapter TopicsGenetics and DNAEvolution by Natural SelectionThe Genetics and Evolution of BehaviorSome Final Thoughts: The Strengths and the Limits of Evolutionary TheorizingSummary * * (left) Andrew Syred/Photo Researchers, (middle) Visuals Unlimited/Corbis, (right) University of Edinburgh,Wellcome Image 2.1 Cell types (A) Red blood cells contain large amounts of a protein called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin picks up oxygen when red blood cells pass through the lungs and then drops off the oxygen when these cells pass through the body’s other tissues. (B) Goblet cells, found in the lining of the small intestine, manufacture granules of a protein called mucigen. When a goblet cell releases mucigen granules into the intestine, they combine with water to make mucin, a component of the mucus that lubricates the intestine. (C) Rod cells, which serve as light detectors in the eye, contain a protein called rhodopsin that absorbs light. Genetics and DNAThe nucleus of each biological cell contains chromosomes, which each contain a single molecule of DNA.Within this molecule, genes govern the cell’s functioning by providing detailed instructions for making proteins. Biological influences on behavior are governed by genes: what are genes and how does genetic inheritance operate? Genes are sections of DNA molecules, stored within chromosomes in every cell, that describe the structure and expression of specific proteins. * * (left) Jim Zuckerman/Corbis; (right) Biophoto Associates 2.2 The cell’s control center Cells contain nuclei, which contain chromosomes, which contain DNA. * (photo) Science Photo Library 2.3 A DNA molecule The production of proteins is governed by the sequence of subunits on the DNA molecule. The sequence (for example, CAGGTC or TCCA) determines the structure of the protein that will be produced as well as when, where, and in what amount the protein will be made. GenomeHumans have 23 pairs of chromosomes and roughly 25,000 protein-coding genes. These are collectively called the person’s genome. * * Leonard Lessin, Photo Researchers, Inc. 2.4 Human chromosomes The human genome consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes; these together contain roughly 25,000 genes. One pair of chromosomes (the so-called sex chromosomes) is either XX or XY; this pair determines whether the person is genetically female or male. The other 22 pairs are called autosomes. Gene ExpressionIn each cell, some genes are expressed at any point in time and others are not.Gene expression is controlled by the biochemical environment inside the cell, which is influenced by the organism’s:overall environment. experience.behavior. * Gene ExpressionAn organism’s genome therefore specifies only its genotype.The overt traits and behaviors of the organi ...

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Please place all the terms into a concept map. Please be sure to describe the nature of the connections and describe WHY each linkage is made. (we need to connect the words with lines with a word or two beside it describing how they are connected, appreciate your help). Terms: Microevolution, macroevolution, \"On the Origin of Species\" Selective breeding Sticklebacks speciation experimental evolution extinction law of succession transitional fossil vestigal homology molecular homology convergent evolution common ancestor uniformitarianism radiometric dating Geologic time scale Solution i) Microevolution: As the name suggests it a kind of evolution happens in a small group (micro) over a short period of time. On the contrary ii) Macroevolution: describes us about a major evolutionary change of a group (taxonomic) over a long period of time. iii) \"On the origin of species\": Basically it is a book written by Darwin. As our father of evolutionary studies Charles Darwin suggests by means of natural slection favoured species only exists, this is the basis of evolution. iv) Selective breeding: where we use artificial breeding method to select particularly a phenotypic trait and produce it, like plant breeding methods in a artificial way. v) Sticklebacks: A family of fish most commonly found in oceans, also found in fresh waters. They are found in continents like Asia, Africa, North America. They are also realted to seahorses. vi) Speciation: Through the process of evolution the formation of new species is known as speciation. vii) Experimantal evolution: This is to talk about the laboratory invented process of manipulating and controlling the evolutionary process in an controlled environment. viii) Extinction: When through the process of evolution species get extinct from the face of earth, or they get ousted or completely removed. ix) Law of Succession: In order to establish a species on an area(eg-barren land) there must be primary species like moses and lichens to go and settle down then over the period of time other species settles. x) transitional fossil: Transition simply means the relation between the old and the new (that has evolved), similarly transitional fossil are those which shows similarity between their ancestors and also to the decendents, the relation between or link between them. xi) Vestigal: We call any organ vestigial when its no more in use, like a rudimentary or remnant of something, some organ that was in use before. eg- Vestigial wings of Kiwis are hidden entirely. xii) homology: Simple meaning is similarity of analogy like protein structure are same in many proteins, so they have homology. xiii) Molecular homology: When we find the molecular level similarity, as in cases of some protein structure have alpha chains similarity. xiv) convergent evolution: Independent evolutuion also known as, where species have evolved independent to each other. xv) common ancestor: Common sharing from where organisms evolved, like under t.

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7 | THE CELLULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE Figure 7.1 Each of us, like these other large multicellular organisms, begins life as a fertilized egg. After trillions of cell divisions, each of us develops into a complex, multicellular organism. (credit a: modification of work by Frank Wouters; credit b: modification of work by Ken Cole, USGS; credit c: modification of work by Martin Pettitt) Chapter Outline 7.1: Sexual Reproduction 7.2: Meiosis 7.3: Errors in Meiosis Introduction The ability to reproduce in kind is a basic characteristic of all living things. In kind means that the offspring of any organism closely resembles its parent or parents. Hippopotamuses give birth to hippopotamus calves; Monterey pine trees produce seeds from which Monterey pine seedlings emerge; and adult flamingos lay eggs that hatch into flamingo chicks. In kind does not generally mean exactly the same. While many single-celled organisms and a few multicellular organisms can produce genetically identical clones of themselves through mitotic cell division, many single-celled organisms and most multicellular organisms reproduce regularly using another method. Sexual reproduction is the production by parents of haploid cells and the fusion of a haploid cell from each parent to form a single, unique diploid cell. In multicellular organisms, the new diploid cell will then undergo mitotic cell divisions to develop into an adult organism. A type of cell division called meiosis leads to the haploid cells that are part of the sexual reproductive cycle. Sexual reproduction, specifically meiosis and fertilization, introduces variation into offspring that may account for the evolutionary success of sexual reproduction. The vast majority of eukaryotic organisms can or must employ some form of meiosis and fertilization to reproduce. 7.1 | Sexual Reproduction By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain that variation among offspring is a potential evolutionary advantage resulting from sexual reproduction • Describe the three different life-cycle strategies among sexual multicellular organisms and their commonalities Sexual reproduction was an early evolutionary innovation after the appearance of eukaryotic cells. The fact that most eukaryotes reproduce sexually is evidence of its evolutionary success. In many animals, it is the only mode of reproduction. Chapter 7 | The Cellular Basis of Inheritance 153 And yet, scientists recognize some real disadvantages to sexual reproduction. On the surface, offspring that are genetically identical to the parent may appear to be more advantageous. If the parent organism is successfully occupying a habitat, offspring with the same traits would be similarly successful. There is also the obvious benefit to an organism that can produce offspring by asexual budding, fragmentation, or asexual eggs. These methods of reproduction do not require another organism of the opposite sex. There is no need to expend energy finding or a.

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