1. By: Emma Mariz Garcia

2. Integumentary System
Function of the Skin
Protection
 Covers internal structure and protects them from the
external environment
Synthesizes Vit. D
 Exposure to UV light causes skin to make vit. D
 Liver and Kidney turn Vitamin D into calcitriol
 Calcitriol regulates calcium and phosphorous
production

3. Function of the Skin
Sensory reception
 Specialized nerves in the skin
 Receive messages of touch, pressure, pain and
temperature
Temperature Regulation
 Sweat gland w/in the skin
 Evaporate cooling

4. Layers of the Skin
 3 Major Layers
a. Epidermis
b. Dermis
c. Subcutaneous

5. Epidermis
 Outer layer
 Thin
 Divided into 2 layers
-Stratum Germinativum
 Superior to dermis
 Produce cells of epidermis
-Stratum Corneum
 Tough layer of epidermis
 Protects body from water loss and gain

6. Dermis
 Region of connective tissue
 Under epidermis
 Contains collagenous and elastic fibers
 There are flexible, but also resilient
Sensory Nerves
 Take nerve impulses from the skin

7. Subcutaneous
 Under the dermis
 Fatty layer
 Energy Storage
 Insulation
 Protection
 Can result in obesity

8. Other parts of skin
Hair
 Project from follicles in the dermis
 Smooth muscles attached to hair root
Nails
 Grow from nail root
 Visible part of the nail is nail body
 Cuticle covers nail root

9. Other parts of skin
Sweat glands
 Found in all regions of the skin
 Evaporate cooling
Sebaceous glands
 Secrete oil into the hair follicle
 Waterproofing

10. Skin
 A.K.A Integument which means “covering”
 Insulates and cushions the deeper body organ
 Protects the entire body from any damage
 Upper most layer is full of “KERATIN and
CORNIFIED”
 Rich in capillary network and sweat gland

12. Skeletal System
Function of the Skeletal System
 Supports the body
 Protects innards
 Production of blood cells
 Provide place for muscle attachment
 Store various minerals and salts

13. Skeletal System
Made up of 206 different bones
4 Basic Shapes
Long bones: Femur
Short bones: wrist and ankle
Flat bones : Skulls and scapula
Irregular Bones: Vertebrae

14. Skeleton is divided in to
Parts
 Axial Skeleton : 80 bones. Which forms the
longitudinal axis in the body (skull, vertebrae, &
bony thorax)
 Appendicular Skeleton : composed of 126 bones
of the limbs and the pectoral and pelvic girdles,
which attach the limbs to the axial skeleton

15. Parts of the Bone Structure

16. Parts of the Bone Structure
 Periosteum
 tough outer cover of the bone
 Contains blood vessels
 Compact bone
 Dense bone
 Made of osteocytes

17. Parts of the Bone Structure
 Spongy bone
 Lighter and less dense than compact bon
 Still strong
 Marrow
 Red and yellow

18. Parts of the Bone Structure
 Epiphysis
 Expanded part of long bone at each end
 Diaphysis
 Part between epiphysis
 Articular Cartilage
 Cartilage at a joint

19. Three Types of Bone Cells
 Osteoblast ( Bone forming)
 Osteocytes (Mature Bone Cells)
 Osteoclasts ( Bone Dissolving)

20. Fractures
 Breaks in bones
 Body able to repair
 Possible problems if not set by the doctor
 Main descriptors used with fractures

21. Types of Fractures
 Comminuted: Bone breaks into many fragments
 Compression: Bone is crushed
 Depressed: broken bone portion is pressed
inward
 Impacted: broken bone ends are into each other
 Spiral: Ragged break occurs when excessive
twisting forces are applied to a bone
 Greenstick: Bone breaks incompletely, much in
the way a green twig breaks

23. Muscular System
 Functions
 Produce movement
 Maintaining Posture
 Stabilizing joint
 Generalizing heat

24. Types of Muscles
 Smooth
 Involuntary
 Walls of hollow organs
 Cardiac
 Involuntary
 Skeletal
 Voluntary
 Attached to the skeleton

25. Structure of Skeletal
Muscle
 Fascia
 Covering of muscle
 Become the tendons
 Myofibrils
 Muscle fibers
 Contraction

26. Parts of Myofibrils
 Actin
 Thin filaments
 Contraction
 Myosin
 Thick filaments
 Contraction

28. Nervous System
 Master controlling and communicating
system of the body
 3 functions
 Monitor changes occurring both inside and
outside the body (stimuli) and then gathered
information is the sensory input
 Processes and interpret the sensory input and
makes decision what should be done (integration)
 Effects as response by activating muscle or glands
via MOTOR OUTPUT

29. Nervous System
 Does not work alone in regulating and
maintaining body homeostasis
 Endocrine system is the 2nd
important
regulating system

30. Structural Classification
 Central Nervous System
 consists of the brain and spinal cord
 act as integrating and command centers of the nervous system
 Peripheral Nervous System
 outside the CNS
 Consists of nerves
 Spinal Nerves – impulses to and from the spinal cord
 Cranial Nerves – impulses to and from the brain

31. PNS Functional Classification
 Sensory(afferent) Division
 keeps the CNS constantly informed of events going on both inside and
outside the body
 Motor (efferent) Division
 activate muscles and organs, they effect a motor response
 2 subdivision
 Somatic nervous system
 Voluntary
 Autonomic Nervous System
 involuntary

32. 2 Principal types of cells
 Supporting cells
 Neurons

33. Supporting Cells in CNS
 “lumped together” as NEUROGLIA
 Has many types of cells that support,
insulate, and protect the delicate neurons

34. CNS Glia
 Astrocytes
 star shaped cells
 account nearly half of the neural tissue
 form a living barrier between capillaries and
neurons and play a role in making exchanges
between the two
 Help protects the neurons from harmful
substances
 Help control the chemical environment in the
brain by picking up excess ions and recapturing
release neurotransmitters

35. CNS Glia
 Microglia
 Spiderlike phagocytes
 It dispose debris, including dead brain cells and
bacteria
 Ependymal Cells
 Line the cavities of the brain and the spinal cord
 Beating of their cilia helps to circulate the CSF
that fills the cavities and forms a protective
cushion around the CNS

36. CNS Glia
 Oligodendrocytes
 Wrap the flat extensions tightly around the nerve
fibers
 Produce fatty insulating coverings called myelin
sheath

37. PNS Glia
 Schwann Cells
 form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers that
are found in CNS
 Satellite Cells
 Act as protective, cushioning cells

38. Functional Classification
and Structural
Classification
Sa book Lang lantaw. Kapoi Type

39. 2 Major Functions of
Neurons
Irritability
the ability to respond to a stimulus and
convert it into the nerve impulse
Conductivity
the ability to transmit the impulse to other
neurons, muscles, or glands

40. Central Nervous System
(Functional Anatomy of the Brain)
 Cerebral Hemispheres
 Called Cerebrum
 Most superior part of the brain
 Enclose and obscure most of the brain stem
 Gyri - elevated ridges of tissue cells
 Sulci - shallow grooves that separates Gyri
 Fissures – deeper grooves w/c separates large
regions of the brain
 Broca’s Area – involved in ability to speak

41.  Parietal Lobe
 Cognition
 Information Processing
 Pain and Touch Sensation
 Spatial Orientation
 Speech
 Visual Perception

42.  Damage to the left parietal lobe
 can result in what is called "Gerstmann's
Syndrome.
 includes right-left confusion
 difficulty with writing (agraphia)
 difficulty with mathematics (acalculia).
 It can also produce disorders of language (aphasia)
 inability to perceive objects normally (agnosia).

43.  Damage to the right parietal lobe
 can result in neglecting part of the body or space
(contralateral neglect), which can impair many
self-care skills
 such as dressing and washing. Caused
 difficulty in making things (constructional
apraxia)
 denial of deficits (anosagnosia)
 drawing ability.

44.  Bi-lateral damage (large lesions to both sides)
 can cause "Balint's Syndrome," a visual
attention and motor syndrome.
 inability to voluntarily control the
gaze (ocular apraxia)
 inability to integrate components of a
visual scene (simultanagnosia)
 inability to accurately reach for an
object with visual guidance (optic
ataxia)

45. Frontal Lobe
 motor function
 problem solving
 Spontaneity
 Memory
 Language
 Initiation
 Judgment
 impulse control
 social and sexual behavior.

46.  frontal lobe damage exhibit little spontaneous
facial expression, which points to the role of the
frontal lobes in facial expression
 Broca's Aphasia, or difficulty in speaking, has
been associated with frontal damage
 frontal damage displayed fewer spontaneous
facial movements, spoke fewer words (left
frontal lesions) or excessively (right frontal
lesions).
 difficulty in interpreting feedback from the
environment

47. Occipital Lobes
 center of our visual perception system
 Visual Perception
 Color Recognition
 not particularly vulnerable to injury because
of their location at the back of the brain

48.  trauma to the brain could produce subtle
changes to our visual-perceptual system, such as
visual field defects and scotomas
 Damage to one side of the occipital lobe
causes homonomous loss of vision with exactly
the same "field cut" in both eyes.
 visual hallucinations and illusions]

49. Temporal Lobe
 Emotional Responses
 Hearing
 Memory
 Speech

50. 8 principle symptoms of
temporal lobe damage
1) disturbance of auditory sensation and perception
2) disturbance of selective attention of auditory
and visual input
3) disorders of visual perception
4) impaired organization and categorization of
verbal material
5) disturbance of language comprehension
6) impaired long-term memory
7) altered personality and affective behavior
8) altered sexual behavior.

51. Diencephalon (Interbrain)
 Major Structures
 Thalamus
 relay station for sensory impulses passing upward
to the sensory cortex
 Hypothalamus
 Regulate body temperature, water balance, and
metabolism
 Center of many drives and emotions
 Epithalamus
 Important parts
 Pineal Body
 Choroid Body – form the CSF

52. Brain Stem
 Major Structures
 Midbrain
 Reflex centers involved w/ vision and hearing
 Pons
 Control of breathing
 Medulla Oblongata
 Centers that control
 Heart rate
 Blood pressure
 Breathing
 Swallowing
 Vomiting

53. Reticular formation
 Involved in motor control of the visceral
organs
 Reticular Activating System (RAS)
 Plays a role in consciousness and the
awake/sleep cycles
 Damage to this area can result in permanent
unconsciousness (coma)

54. Cerebellum
 Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
activity
 Controls our balance and equilibrium

55. Protection of the CNS
 Meninges
 connective tissue membranes covering and
protecting the CNS
 Meningeal Layer
 Dura Mater
 Outermost layer
 “tough of hard mother”
 Arachnoid mater
 Middle layer
 Pia Mater
 Innermost layer

56. Cerebrospinal Fluid
Watery “broth” similar in its makeup to blood
and plasma
Contains less protein, more Vit. C, and ion
composition is different
Forms a watery cushion that protects the fragile
nervous tissue from blows and trauma

58. Endocrine System
 Uses chemical messenger called HORMONES

59. Chemistry of Hormones
Hormones – chemical substances that are
secreted by the cells into the extracellular
fluid and regulate the metabolic activity of
other cells in the body

60. Mechanism of Hormone Action
Target cells / Target organs
hormones affects only certain tissue cells/
organs

61. Major Endocrine Organs
 Pituitary
 Thyroid
 Parathyroid
 Adrenal
 Pineal
 Thymus glands
 Pancreas
 Gonads

62. Major Endocrine Organs
Hypothalamus is considered as a major
endocrine organ

63. Pituitary Gland
 Two functional Lobe
 Anterior Pituitary
 Posterior Pituitary

64. Hormones of Anterior
Pituitary
Tropic Hormones – stimulates the target organs
to secrete hormones
All AP hormones
 are proteins (peptides)
 act through second messenger systems
 regulated by hormonal stimuli and in most cases,
negative feedback

65. Hormones of Anterior
Pituitary
 Growth Hormone
 Metabolic Hormone
 Major effects are directed to:
 Growth of skeletal muscles and long bones of
the body
 Play important role in determining final body size

66. Hormones of Anterior
Pituitary
 Prolactin (PRL)
 protein hormone
 Known target is the “BREAST”
 Stimulates and maintains milk production
 Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
 regulates the endocrine activity of the
cortex portion of the adrenal gland

67. Hormones of Anterior
Pituitary
 Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
 influences the growth and activity of the thyroid gland
 Gonadotropic Hormone
 Regulate the hormonal activity of the gonad
 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
 Stimulates follicle development in the ovaries
 Luteinizing Hormone
 triggers ovulation of an egg from the female ovary and causes the
ruptured follicle to produce progesterone and some estrogen
 Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone
 LH in men
 stimulates tertosterone production

68. Hormones of Posterior
Pituitary
 Oxytocin
 release during childbirth and nursing women
 stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine
muscle
 Causes milk ejection
 Stop postpartum bleeding

69. Hormones of Posterior
Pituitary
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
 causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water from
the urine
 as a result urine volume decreases and blood
volume increases
 Increase BP by constricting the arterioles
 sometimes referred as VASOPRESSIN

70. Thyroid Gland
 Hormone producing gland
 Makes 2 hormones
 Thyroid Hormone – derive from colliod
 Calcitonin

71. Thyroid Gland
 Thyroid Hormone
 Body major’s metabolic hormone
 2 active iodine containing hormone
 Thyroxine (T4)
 Major hormone secreted by the
thyroid follicle
 Triiodothyronine (T3)
 controls the rate @ w/c glucose in “burned”, or oxidized, and
converted to body heat and chemical energy
 important for normal tissue growth and development

72. Thyroid Gland
 Calcitonin (Thyrocalcitonin)
 decreases blood calcium level
 made by the so-called C (parafollicular) cells found
in connective tissue between the follicles
 Released directly to the blood
 Hypocalcemic hormone

73. Parathyroid Gland
 Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
 or parathormone
 Important regulator of calcium ion homeostasis of
the blood
 a hypercalcemic hormone
 Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb
more calcium

74. Adrenal Glands
 Hormones of Adrenal Cortex
 produces three major groups of steroid hormones
collectively called – CORTICOSTERIODS
 Mineralocorticoids
 Glucocorticoids
 Sex Hormones

75. Hormones of Adrenal Cortex
 Mineralocorticoids
 mainly aldosterone
 important in regulating the mineral (salt) content
of the blood
 Particularly Na & K concentration
 Target is the KINDEY TUBULES that selectively
reabsorb the minerals
 Help regulate both water and electrolyte balance
in body fluids

76. Hormones of Adrenal Cortex
 Glucocorticoids
 include cortisone and cortisol
 promote normal cell metabolism
 help the body to resist long0-term stressors
 hyperglycemic hormones
 control unpleasant effects of inflammation by
decreasing edema
 reduce pain by inhibiting some pain causing
molecules called – PROSTAGLANDIN
 released from the adrenal cortex in response to
rising blood levels of ACTH

77. Hormones of Adrenal Cortex
 Sex Hormones
 produced in relatively small amounts
 androgens ( male sex hormones)
 estrogens (female sex hormones)

78. Hormones of Adrenal Medulla
 Stimulated by sympathetic hormone
 Releases two similar hormones referred as
CATECHOLAMINES:
 epinephrine (adrenaline)
 norepinephrine
 “misplaced sympathetic nervous system
ganglion”

79. Pancreatic Islets
 Formerly called the “Islets of Langerhans”
 2 important hormones it produced:
 Insulin
 release by beta cells
 acts on all body cells and increases the ability to transport
glucose across the plasma membrane
 Hypoglycemic effects
 Glucagon
 antagonist of the insulin
 release by alpha cells
 stimulated by low blood level of glucose
 hyperglycemic effects

80. Pineal Gland
 Function is still a mystery
 Secretes Melatonin
 it levels rise and fall during the course of the day and
night
 peak levels occur @ night that make us drowsy
 daylight around noon is the lowest level
 believe to be “sleep” trigger
 plays important role in establishing the body’s day-
night cycle
 coordinate the hormones of fertility
 inhibit the reproductive system

81. Thymus Gland
 Large in infants and children
 Decreases size throughout adulthood
 Produce a hormone THYMOSIN
 During childhood, Thymus acts as an
incubator for the maturation of a special
group of WBC (T cells)