Developed in 2014 for NC ES/Environmental high school curriculum

1.  You will receive a list of unit vocabulary at the top of
every unit note packet!
 How you choose to complete the vocabulary is up to
you!
 It should be completed in your science notebook or
stored in your binder and will be checked for
completion on the day it is due. [10 points]
 Expect a vocabulary test approximately 1 week after
you receive the list.

2. Unit 1
The study of stars and space.

3. Big Bang

4. •
The universe is expanding
o
How do we know this?
• In the late 1920’s, Edwin Hubble
discovered that All galaxies were “redshifted” when viewed from Earth.
• This meant that all galaxies were moving
away from Earth and each other, and
thus, the universe must be expanding.
• Learn to annotate!

5. •
•
•
All matter and energy in the universe was once
condensed into a single point
13.8 bya
Moments after the Big Bang, the universe was very
hot and dense
o Protons, neutrons, and electrons formed
o Hydrogen formed
o There was enough energy to start nuclear fusion
 Helium formed

6. •
Evidence
o
Background radiation

Space is...space!
o There should be no heat at all (0K)
o Scientists have measured space; 3K (Background
radiation exists)
o
Composition of matter in the universe
74% hydrogen
 24% helium


7. Expansion of the Universe

8. A.
Electromagnetic Energy
1.
2.
The sun is the major energy
source for weather changes in
the atmosphere and many of the
changes occurring at Earth’s
surface.
Energy from the sun comes in
many different wavelengths.

10. The number of wave crests passing any given
point in a unit of time
High speed = High frequency

11.  Study of the properties of
light that depend on
wavelength.
 light given off by stars
has many colors
 The light appears white
Spectroscope:
Instrument used to
break up light from a
star into its
characteristic colors

12. Continuous Spectrum is an uninterrupted band
of color from red to purple

13.  Absorption Spectrum appears continuous, but with dark
lines running through it at various wavelengths
 Spectra of most stars

14.  Emission (you will need to cross out absorption in

your notes) spectrum is a series of bright lines of
particular wavelengths
depends on the gas that produced them
 bright lines appear in the exact location as the dark lines
that are produced by the same gas in an absorption
spectrum

15.  Each element or compound in its gaseous form produce a
unique set of spectral lines
 Spectral lines act as “fingerprints” used to identify
elements present in the star’s composition
ex) The SUN has thousands of dark lines & more than 60
elements have been identified by matching these lines with
those elements known on Earth

17. •
The Doppler Effect
o
o
o
The change in frequency of a wave
an observer relative to its motion
Moving toward you: Waves are
compressed together
Moving away: Waves are stretched

19. •
Redshift
o
When the light of a distant object (star, planet, etc.) is
viewed through a prism, the spectrum is not
continuous

20. •
Redshift
o
When the light of a distant object (star,
planet, etc.) is viewed through a prism,
the spectrum is not continuous
o
Black lines appear: Absorption lines

o
Determine which elements are present
When the object is moving away from
us, the absorption lines are shifted
toward the red end of the spectrum
(stretched): Redshift!

21. Using the spectroscope, astronomers can determine
whether a particular object is moving toward Earth or
away from Earth

22. •
Hubble’s Law: The
further an object is
from Earth, the
faster it is moving
o
If a galaxy is twice
as far from Earth
as another, it is
moving twice as
fast

23. Structure of the Sun

24. •
•
•
Our sun is just one of billions of stars in the Milky
Way galaxy.
Only star whose surface we can study.
Through spectroscopic analysis of the sun, scientists
know that most of the known elements are found in
the sun
o
Hydrogen makes up 74% of the sun’s mass
o
Helium makes up 24%

25. •
Sunspots: “Dark” areas
on the sun
o
o
o
“Cool” areas
The magnetic field
breaks through the
surface, causing a
disruption in heat
transfer
The number of
sunspots varies every
11 years. This is known
as the solar cycle.

26. •
The core
o
Nuclear fusion

27. Life Cycles of Stars

28. •
A Star is Born

29. •
•
A star’s “life cycle” can last billions of years.
The following slides describe the general phases in
stellar evolution

30. Nebula
• Dark, cool clouds of
interstellar gas and
dust.
• Often referred to as
“stellar nurseries.”
• Stars begin to form
as gas and dust
collide.

31. Protostar
• Developing star
• Not yet hot enough
for fusion reactions
(10x106 K)
http://seethaler.net/space/protostar.jpeg

32. Main Sequence Star
• Hydrogen to Helium
fusion has begun!
• The hotter, larger
stars burn H2
fastest.
• This stage makes
up 90% of a star’s
“life.”
http://content4.bestthinking.com/s/1/topics/500/images/3e6daf0-40a3-495c-8006-5da9e7e9b069_972.jpeg

33. Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
• E. Hertzsprung and H. Norris Russell
studied the relation between the absolute
magnitude (or luminosity) and spectral
types (or surface temperature) of stars.
• The diagram showing these two variables
is known as HR diagram.
• The HR diagram represents a major step
towards an understanding of stellar
evolution.

35. Earth’s Place in the Universe

36. Universe
Our Milky Way
Galaxy is one of
billions of galaxies in
an expanding
universe

37. Milky Way Galaxy
• Our Sun/solar
system is one of
an estimated
180 billion stars
making up this
spiral galaxy

38. Our Solar System
Earth – a small dense rocky planet, one of 8 planets
that orbit the sun
AND – the only one we know of that has LIFE as
we know it……

39. Models of the Universe
A. Geocentric Model
1. About 2000 years
ago, the Greek
astronomer, Claudius
Ptolemy developed a
detailed model of the
universe based on
the idea of revolving
spheres.

40. Models of the Universe
2. In this model of the
universe, Earth was
at the center, and all
heavenly bodies
moved around
Earth in Perfect
circles.

41. 3. Ptolemy’s Geocentric model, as
illustrated on the next page, can be
summarized as follows:
a. Earth is located in
the center and does
not move.
b. The stars are
located on a
transparent sphere
that rotates once
each day from east
to west around
Earth.

42. c.
The Sun, the Moon and
each planet are carried
by separate spheres of
different sizes.
d.
Each planet is located
on an epicycle that also
rotates. This explained
retrograde motion –
the apparent
backward motion of
planets.

43. d. This model was accepted for almost 1400 years because it
explained celestial observations made from Earth and………
seemed obvious.
•
However –
f.
it
The geocentric model does NOT explain terrestrial
(Earth) observations such as:
1.
The movement/rotation of a pendulum’s direction.
2.
The curvature of the paths of projectiles, winds & ocean
currents.

44. B. Heliocentric Model
In the 1500’s, a new
model of the universe
was proposed in a
book by the Polish
astronomer Nicholas
Copernicus.
•
In this model of
the universe, the
sun was the
center.
2:08

45. Heliocentric Model
Copernicus’ heliocentric model can be
summarized as follows:
1. The Sun is located in the center of the system
and does NOT move.
2. The stars are located on a stationary/unmoving
transparent sphere. The sphere is a great
distance from the sun.
3. The planets, including Earth, move in circles
around the sun.
4. The Moon moves in a circle around Earth.
5. Earth rotates on its axis from west toward east
each day.

46. However…..
Copernicus’ heliocentric
model does NOT explain the
apparent cyclic variations in
the size of the Sun, and the
cyclic variation in orbital
speeds of the planets. This
is because in the
heliocentric model, the
planets orbit the sun in
perfect circles.

47. C. Kepler’s Heliocentric
Model
1. In 1609, Johannes Kepler
published a book which
included his first 2 “Laws
of Planetary Motion”.
These laws explain why
the apparent size of the
sun changed, and why the
speed of a planet changes
as it orbits the Sun.

48. a. Kepler’s First Law
• The orbit of each
planet is an ellipse
with the sun at one
focus and an
imaginary point in
space at the other
focus.

49. An Ellipse –
draw the parts in your notes
 An ellipse looks like an oval, or squashed circle.
 The longest line drawn from one end of the ellipse
(through the center) to the other side is called the major
axis.

50. √ Eccentricity
• Eccentricity (e) = the “out of
roundness” shape of the ellipse given
by the ratio of the distance between
the two foci and the length of the
major axis.
•e =
distance between foci
Length of Major Axis
The eccentricity of a circular orbit is zero, and can
range from zero to less than one for an ellipse.

51. 2. Eccentricity
d.
Relationship: As the distance between the focal points
increase, the shape of the ellipse becomes more
oval (Circle = 0)

52. B. Kepler’s Second Law
 describes the fact that a planet
moves fastest in its orbit when it
is nearest the Sun.
Maximum speed
Decreasing speed
 Area A = Area B = Area C
Minimum speed

53. B. Kepler’s Second Law
1. Perihelion
= point in orbit nearest
to sun
2. Aphelion
from sun
= point in orbit furthest

54. C. Kepler’s Third Law
• The further a
particular planet is
from the sun, the
longer it’s period
(time) of revolution.
• 1. Farther planets have
longer orbital paths
• 2. Farther planets have
slower orbital paths

55. D. Sir Isaac Newton
1. Newton’s Laws of
Gravity
First Law
a) All objects with
mass will be acted
on by gravity and
will pull all other
objects with a certain
gravitational force.

56. Newton’s Laws of Gravity
b) Newton’s Second Law
The mass of an object
will determine the
amount of gravitational
force that object
possesses.
•
The greater the mass,
the greater the
gravitational force.

57. Newton’s Laws of Gravity
c) Third Law
The gravitational force
between 2 objects
changes as the
distance between
them change. As
the distance
increases, gravitati
onal pull will
decrease.

58. 2. Gravity and Inertia

59. a. Newton’s Law of Inertia
States that a body in forward motion will continue in forward
motion unless acted on by an outside force.
Inertia
Gravity
Stable Orbit

60. B. Gravity and Inertia
 Inertia – causes a
planet to move in a
straight line.
 Gravity – pulls a
planet toward the
sun.

61. Rotation
• The spinning of a
celestial body (Earth)
on an imaginary axis

62. Rotation
A. Earth’s Direction of Rotation:
WEST to EAST
2. Angular Rate of Rotation:
THINK – one complete rotation
a. 360 degrees
b. 24
hours
Rate = 3600/24 hours = 150/hour

63. B. Effects of Earth’s Rotation
1. Day and Night

64. B. Effects of Earth’s Rotation
2.
Apparent daily motion
of the sun
a. Earth rotates from
WEST to EAST
b. Sun “appears” to move in
an arc from EAST to
WEST

65. Earth is NOT a perfect sphere.
It is an oblate spheroid –
slightly wider across the
equator (due to its rotational
spin)
Earth‘s axis is not stable. It
moves/wobbles (like a top).
This is known as precession.
It’s very slow - 26,000 years to
complete one cycle.
Within the precession are
additional motions known as
nutations. These are
smaller motions back and forth
as the precession occurs.

66. V. Revolution
• The orbiting of one celestial body around another
celestial body.
A. Earth’s Angular Rate of Revolution
1. 360 degrees
2. 365 days
3. Rate = 3600/365 days ~ = 10/day

67. B. Effects of Earth’s
Revolution
1. Nighttime constellations
change in a yearly cycle.
2. Constellation – groups
of stars that form
patterns of imaginary
things such as
animals, legendary
heroes, and
mythological gods

68. 3. Seasons – a yearly cycle

69. 5. Seasons of the Year
A.
Causes:
1.
Revolution - Earth revolves around the sun
2.
TILT - Earth is tilted/inclined on axis 23 1/2o
3.
Parallelism of Axis - Earth’s axis always points in the
same direction.

70. B. Earth’s axis is tilted 23.50 relative to the plane
of it’s orbit.
• Draw and label
your diagram
according to the
diagram at the
right. Be sure to
name the
equator, the
Tropic of Cancer
and Capricorn
and note where
we live.

71. C. The apparent path of the sun changes with the
seasons and with latitude.
N.C. 35.5 degrees North Latitude

72. D. Length of Daylight (duration of daylight) –
changes with seasons and with latitude.

73. E. Factors affecting Insolation
1. Shape of the Earth (spherical)
2. As latitude
increases, the
angle of
insolation
decreases, and
the intensity of
insolation
decreases.

74. 3. Season of the Year
a.
As Earth travels along its orbital path around the
sun, the angle of insolation at a given latitude changes
with the seasons. This depends on how far a given
latitude is from the direct rays of the sun. The direct
rays migrate between the Tropic of Cancer (north)
and the Tropic of Capricorn (south).

75. 4. Time of Day
a.
The angle of
insolation
changes in the
course of one
day. Maximum
intensity occurs at
Noon.

76. b. Looking South
• The shadow of a vertical pole indicates how the angle of insolation
changes during the day. The higher/greater the angle of insolation,
the shorter the shadow, and the greater the intensity of
insolation.

77. VI The Moon
A.The moon is a natural
satellite of Earth.
1. Luna – Latin for moon
2. Diana – Roman goddess
of the moon

78. B. Physical Properties of the Moon
1. Size
a. Diameter: 2160
miles
b. Compared to Earth
Diameter of Moon = 2160 = 1
Earth
2.
8000
4
Gravity
a. 1/6 the gravity of Earth
b. This is because the Moon
has – less mass

79. 2. Atmosphere
a)
The Moon has No
atmosphere, so radiation from
sun strong
b)
Gravity too weak so gases
escape into space.
c)
Without an atmosphere radiation
from the sun is INTENSE!
d)
Frozen water may exist at the
Moon’s polar regions, but none
in liquid form

80. 3. Temperatures
a. 240oF on the lighted
side
b. - 240oF on the far side
c. These large temperature
extremes or differences
exist because NO
atmosphere to transfer
heat.

81. 4. The Moon’s Revolution
a. Period of Revolution
b. 1 month OR 29.5 days
c. The moon revolves around Earth
in an elliptical orbit with the
Earth at one focus.
d. This causes the moon’s
apparent diameter/size to
change in a cyclic manner.

82. 5. Phases of the Moon
a.
The phases of the moon are caused by the moon’s
revolution around Earth.
b.
Our Earth view of the changing illuminated part of the
moon’s surface that face’s Earth.

83. c. Waning moon - the decrease
in light (on the left), away
from being a full moon to new
moon, is called a.

84. d. waxing moon - as the moon
increases towards becoming
a full moon.

85. Phase #1 New Moon
When the moon is in
between the sun and
the Earth, we cannot
see the moon. This
part of the moon is in
the shade.

87. 6. Moon Rotation
b.
c.
Does that mean the
moon doesn't
rotate?
YES it does --one
rotation for each
revolution around
Earth!

88. 7. Lunar Eclipse
a. An eclipse of the Moon can only take place
at full moon and only if the Moon passes
through some portion of the earth’s
shadow. The shadow is actually composed
of two (2) cone-shaped components, one
inside the other. The outer or penumbra
shadow is a zone where some portion of
the sun’s rays are blocked. In contrast, the
inner or umbra shadow is a region devoid
of all direct sunlight.

89. 8. Solar Eclipse
a.
A solar eclipse
occurs when the
moon passes
directly between
the Earth and
sun.
b.
New Moon are
the only time
solar eclipses can
occur.

90. 10. Tides
a. Tides are the alternate
rising and falling of the
sea.
b. This is caused by the
Moon’s gravitational pull.
c. The rising of tides is
affected by the position and
distance of moon!
d. The period from high tide to
high tide is 12 hours and 12
minutes.
e. Tides are a CYCLIC