![Pottery Type as Index Fossil
“The analysis and interpretation of
archaeological data reveal a number of
cultural complexes which have definable
spatial and temporal distributions”
(Smith 1950: 99, emphasis added)
“[I] was able to distinguish two ceramic
Time
styles, and to make several tentative
suggestions as to chronology”
(Rouse 1947: 10, emphasis added)
“[S]uch an analysis...would prove useful in
obtaining a more minute chronological
differentiation”
(Ritchie and MacNeish 1949: 97, emphasis added)
Modified from O’Brien and Lyman (1999)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/quadconferencepresentation-121107124429-phpapp02/75/16th-and-17th-century-sokwakik-4-2048.jpg?cb=1670729805)
![MacNeish’s ‘Iroquois’ Types
“The presence of the Mohawk types...in the pottery of
sites thought to be ancestral to, or which have been
identified as historic sites of [Algonquin Indians]
suggests relationships...I believe we may have a
Mohawk influence on the Algonkins, though it just as
conceivably could the converse.”
(MacNeish 1952: 73)
“It appears that, for much of [New England], the
Algonquins in historic times had pottery styles more
similar to the Iroquois than to the Owasco”
(MacNeish 1952: 88)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/quadconferencepresentation-121107124429-phpapp02/75/16th-and-17th-century-sokwakik-7-2048.jpg?cb=1670729805)
16th and 17th Century Sokwakik
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Invited presentation at the Vermont Quadricentennial Indigenous Conference, Saint Michael's College, 2009.
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16th and 17th Century Sokwakik
- 1. 16 and 17 Century th th Sokwakik Matthew T. Boulanger Department of Anthropology • University of Missouri Vermont Quadricentennial Indigenous Conference Saint Michael’s College May 2–3, 2009
- 2. Identity Identity 1. The quality or condition of being the same in substance, composition, nature, properties or in particular qualities under consideration; absolute or essential sameness; oneness 2. The sameness of a person or thing at all times or in all circumstances; the condition or fact that a person or thing is itself and not something else; individuality, personality Definitions from the 1998 Oxford English Dictionary, emphasis added
- 3. Sokwakik ca. A.D. 1600–1700 Missisquois Missisquois Lake Champlain Canibas (Norridgewocks) Canibas (Norridgewocks) Cowasucks Cowasucks Pigwackets R. cut ecti Winnipesaukees Winnipesaukees Sacos n Atlantic Con Ocean Penacooks Sokwakik Merrimack R. s ican M ah Pocomtucks Nipmucks R. Woronocos Woronocos n dso s ngers Hu pinger Narragansetts Wampanoags Mohegan Wappi Wap Pequots Quiripis Quiripis Adapted from Foster and Cowan (1998)
- 4. Pottery Type as Index Fossil “The analysis and interpretation of archaeological data reveal a number of cultural complexes which have definable spatial and temporal distributions” (Smith 1950: 99, emphasis added) “[I] was able to distinguish two ceramic Time styles, and to make several tentative suggestions as to chronology” (Rouse 1947: 10, emphasis added) “[S]uch an analysis...would prove useful in obtaining a more minute chronological differentiation” (Ritchie and MacNeish 1949: 97, emphasis added) Modified from O’Brien and Lyman (1999)
- 5. Pottery Type as Identity Marker? “It was hoped that our survey might reveal significant areal subdivisions which eventually might be referred to historic tribal units.” (Ritchie and MacNeish 1949: 99, emphasis added) "Important fields for future research lie in the documentation of more...historic sites so that the distributions of the three archaeological culture complexes, Windsor, East River, and Shantok may be correlated with all the known historic tribes." (Smith 1950: 156, emphasis added)
- 6. MacNeish’s ‘Iroquois’ Types Pottery Types Onondaga Mohawk Rice Woods Younger Pompey Center Archaeological Sites Martin Roebuck Wagoner Hollow Durfee Otstungo Caen Garoga Swarthout Cayadutta A.D. 1350 A.D. 1687 Lanorie Chance Ivey Goodyear Lake Older Calkins Bainbridge Pillar Point Castle Creek Images and text modified from MacNeish (1952) Wickham
- 7. MacNeish’s ‘Iroquois’ Types “The presence of the Mohawk types...in the pottery of sites thought to be ancestral to, or which have been identified as historic sites of [Algonquin Indians] suggests relationships...I believe we may have a Mohawk influence on the Algonkins, though it just as conceivably could the converse.” (MacNeish 1952: 73) “It appears that, for much of [New England], the Algonquins in historic times had pottery styles more similar to the Iroquois than to the Owasco” (MacNeish 1952: 88)
- 8. Stylistic traits are often particularly good indicators of Hypothetical transmission of stylistic elements and knowledge through traditional space/time relationships means from individuals A and B, to their descendants. Note that change operates in A3 stochastic fashion. Traditions of ceramic knowledge are inherited and Time A2 B2 modified across and between generations A1 B1 Style changes stochastically through time A B Similarity of style suggests Space similarity of history
- 9. Native Communities at Contact Missisquois Missisquois Lake Champlain Canibas (Norridgewocks) Canibas (Norridgewocks) Cowasucks Cowasucks Pigwackets R. cut ecti Winnipesaukees Winnipesaukees Sacos n Atlantic Con Ocean Penacooks Sokwakik s ican Merrimack R. M ah Pocomtucks Pocomtucks Nipmucks R. Woronocos Woronocos n dso s ngers Hu pinger Narragansetts Wampanoags Mohegan Wappi Wap Pequots Quiripis Quiripis Adapted from Foster and Cowan (1998), and Grumet (1995)
- 10. “Melted down by disease” Disease Dates Extent Smallpox 1520–1524 Unknown Influenza? ca. 1535 St. Lawrence Valley Unidentified 1564–1570 St. Lawrence Valley & New England Unidentified 1574 Southern New England Typhus? 1586 Southern New England Smallpox? 1592–1593 Southern New England Unidentified 1612–1613 New England Hepatitis? 1616–1619 Coastal New England Smallpox 1633 Merrimack River Valley Measles/Smallp St. Lawrence & Hudson Valleys, New 1637 ox England Scarlet Fever? 1633 New England–Great Lakes Smallpox 1639 Northeastern North America Influenza 1646 New England Smallpox 1649 Quebec, Ontario Known and suspected (italicized) epidemics in Diptheria 1659 New England northeastern North America prior to A.D. 1663
- 11. Social boundaries were fluid and open Disease and warfare began as early as the 1520s, but were definitely prevalent by the early 1600s Native response to social upheaval involved dispersal as a survival mechanism
- 12. “For so we are all Indians as the English are, and say brother to one another; so must we be one as they are, otherwise we shall all be gone shortly, for you know our fathers had plenty of deer and skins, our plains were full of deer, as also our woods, and of turkies, and our coves full of fish and fowl...” Miantonomi (1642)
- 14. Sewalls Falls, Merrimack River, NH Drawing by Ellen Pawelczak from Starbuck (2005, Fig. 3.18) Bark Wigwams, Northampton, MA Photograph by the Massachusetts Archaeological Society, see also Johnson and Bradley (1987, Fig. 8)
- 15. Fort Shantok, Connecticut modified from Johnson (1993, Fig. 6e, 6g) Site 86-2, Connecticut modified from Lizee (1994, Fig. 58, 67)
- 16. Griswold, Lower Connecticut Valley from McBride (1984, Fig. 4.27) Site 86-2, Connecticut modified from Lizee (1994, Fig. 66
- 19. Fort Hill Guida Farm Pine Hill
- 21. Identity Identity 1. The quality or condition of being the same in substance, composition, nature, properties or in particular qualities under consideration; absolute or essential sameness; oneness 2. The sameness of a person or thing at all times or in all circumstances; the condition or fact that a person or thing is itself and not something else; individuality, personality Definitions from the 1998 Oxford English Dictionary, emphasis added
- 22. Acknowledgments My thanks to Donna and John Moody for their invitation to present, and my apologies for not being able to do so in person. Peter Thomas provided insightful and helpful comments on an earlier draft, and he has been supportive of the analysis of the Fort Hill material since day one. Special thanks and best wishes to old friends in Vermont. Questions and comments may be addressed to me at boulangerm@missouri.edu Additional information on this research may be found at: http://missouri.academia.edu/MatthewBoulanger