Week 14Analysis and Presentation of Data - Hypothesis Tes.docx

Week 14
Analysis and Presentation of Data - Hypothesis Testing and
Measures of Association
1
RES 500 Academic Writing and Research Skills
2
Hypothesis Testing vs. Theory
“Don’t confuse “hypothesis” and “theory.”
The former is a possible explanation; the

latter, the correct one. The establishment
of theory is the very purpose of science.”
3
Hypothesis Testing
Deductive
Reasoning
Inductive
Reasoning
4
Statistical Procedures
Descriptive

Statistics
Inferential
Statistics
5
Hypothesis Testing and the Research Process
(Source: Cooper & Schindler, 2013, Exhibit 11-1, p. 431)
6
Approaches to Hypothesis Testing
Classical statistics
Objective view of probability
Established hypothesis is rejected or fails to be rejected
Analysis based on sample data

Bayesian statistics
Extension of classical approach
Analysis based on sample data
Also considers established subjective probability estimates
7
Types of Hypotheses
Null
pg
Alternate

8
Two-Tailed Test of Significance
9
One-Tailed Test of Significance
10
Statistical Decisions

11
Critical Values
12
True value of parameter
Alpha level selected
One or two-tailed test used
Sample standard deviation
Sample size

13
Statistical Testing Procedures
Obtain critical test value
Interpret the test
Stages
Choose statistical test
State null hypothesis
Select level of significance
Compute difference value
14
Tests of Significance

Nonparametric
Parametric
15
How to Select a Test
How many samples are involved?
If two or more samples:
are the individual cases independent or related?
Is the measurement scale
nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?
16
Parametric Tests
t-test
Z-test

17
One-Sample t-Test ExampleNullHo: = 50 mpgStatistical testt-
test Significance level.05, n=100Calculated value1.786Critical
test value1.66
(from Appendix C,
Exhibit C-2)
18
One Sample Chi-Square Test ExampleLiving
ArrangementIntend to JoinNumber InterviewedPercent
(no. interviewed/200)Expected
Frequencies
(percent x 60)Dorm/fraternity16904527Apartment/rooming
house, nearby13402012Apartment/rooming house,
distant16402012Live at home15

_____30
_____15
_____ 9
_____Total6020010060
(Source: Cooper & Schindler, 2013, p. 446)
19
Two-Sample Parametric Tests
20
k-Independent-Samples Tests: ANOVA
Tests the null hypothesis that the means of three or more
populations are equal

One-way: Uses a single-factor, fixed-effects model to compare
the effects of a treatment or factor on a continuous dependent
variable
21
ANOVA
Example__________________________________________Mod
el
Summary_________________________________________Sour
ced.f.Sum of SquaresMean SquareF Valuep ValueModel
(airline)211644.0335822.01728.3040.0001Residual
(error)5711724.550205.694
Total5923368.583_______________________Means
Table________________________CountMeanStd. Dev.Std.
ErrorLufthansa2038.95014.0063.132Malaysia
Airlines2058.90015.0893.374Cathay
Pacific2072.90013.9023.108
All data are hypothetical
(Source: Cooper & Schindler, 2011, Exhibit 17-11)

22
Measures of Association
23
18-23
Measures of Association: Interval/Ratio DataPearson correlation
coefficientFor continuous linearly related variablesCorrelation
ratio (eta)For nonlinear data or relating a main effect to a
continuous dependent variableBiserialOne continuous and one
dichotomous variable with an underlying normal
distributionPartial correlationThree variables; relating two with
the third’s effect taken outMultiple correlationThree variables;
relating one variable with two othersBivariate linear
regressionPredicting one variable from another’s scores

24
Measures of Association: Ordinal DataGammaBased on
concordant-discordant pairs; proportional reduction in error
(PRE) interpretationKendall’s tau bP-Q based; adjustment for
tied ranksKendall’s tau cP-Q based; adjustment for table
dimensionsSomers’s dP-Q based; asymmetrical extension of
gammaSpearman’s rhoProduct moment correlation for ranked
data
25
Measures of Association: Nominal DataPhiChi-square based for
2*2 tablesCramer’s VCS based; adjustment when one table
dimension >2Contingency coefficient CCS based; flexible data
and distribution assumptionsLambdaPRE based
interpretationGoodman & Kruskal’s tauPRE based with table
marginals emphasisUncertainty coefficientUseful for
multidimensional tablesKappaAgreement measure

26
Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation r
Is there a relationship between X and Y?
What is the magnitude of the relationship?
What is the direction of the relationship?
27
Scatterplots of Relationships

28
Diagram of Common Variance
29
Interpretation of Correlations
X causes Y
Y causes X
X and Y are activated by one or more other variables
X and Y influence each other reciprocally
30
Comparison of Bivariate Linear Correlation and Regression

31
Testing Goodness of Fit
Y is completely unrelated to X
and no systematic pattern is evident
There are constant values of
Y for every value of X
The data are related but
represented by a nonlinear function
32
Components of Variation

Sharon Owen (SO) - Source attribution for graphic needed
References
33
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2013). Appendix c –
Nonparametric significance tests. In Business research methods
(pp. 612-618). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2013). Appendix d – Selected
statistical tables. In Business research methods (pp. 619-629).
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2013). Hypothesis testing. In
Business research methods (pp. 428-465). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2013). Measurement of
association. In Business research methods (pp. 466-501). New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2013). Hypothesis testing. In
Business research methods (pp. 428-465). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2011). Business research
methods. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

33
Paleontologists have found fossils dating back 3.6 billion years.
These closely resemble
A.
small invertebrate animals.
B.
nothing alive today.
C.
fungi.
D.
today’s simplest plants.
E.
blue-green algae present today.
5 points
QUESTION 2
When taxonomists classify organisms using a phylogenetic
approach, they are most concerned with
A.
outgroups.
B.
cladists.
C.
ingroups.
D.

ancestral traits.
E.
derived traits.
5 points
QUESTION 3
In bacteria, the cell wall is composed mainly of
A.
various polysaccharides.
B.
peptidoglycans.
C.
proteins.
D.
glycoproteins.
E.
lipids.
5 points
QUESTION 4
Which form of bacterial cells is rod shaped?
A.
cocci
B.
vibrios
C.
spirilla
D.
rhodius

E.
Bacilli
5 points
QUESTION 5
The endosymbiont hypothesis suggests that the mitochondria of
eukaryotic cells are descended from captured
A.
cyanobacteria.
B.
eukaryotic algae.
C.
chemoautotrophic bacteria.
D.
archaebacteria.
E.
aerobic bacteria.
5 points
QUESTION 6
Eukaryotic cells are thought to have
A.
evolved before prokaryotic cells.
B.
appeared about 2.1 billion years ago.
C.
first appeared with tough cell walls.
D.
first appeared as parts of multicellular organisms.
E.
developed when mitochondria grew much larger in size that
they had been previously.

5 points
QUESTION 7
What term is used to indicate a characteristic that is shared and
inherited from a common ancestor?
A.
analogous trait
B.
homologous trait
C.
cladistic trait
D.
outgroups
E.
derived trait
5 points
QUESTION 8
Prions are composed of
A.
DNA, RNA, and protein.
B.
protein.
C.
DNA and protein.

D.
DNA.
E.
RNA.
5 points
QUESTION 9
Of the following, which kingdom contains the most diversity in
terms of DNA sequences?
A.
All of these are approximately equivalently diverse.
B.
Protista
C.
Fungi
D.
Plantae
E.
Animalia
5 points

QUESTION 10
Atmospheric chemists think that Earth’s first atmosphere
A.
contained no oxygen atoms.
B.
consisted of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide.
C.
was very similar to today’s atmosphere.
D.
consisted of carbon in the form of carbon monoxide.
E.
contained nitrogen in the form of ammonia and nitrogen gas.
5 points
QUESTION 11
Rickettsias belong to which major group of bacteria?
A.
Archaea

B.
cyanobacteria
C.
spirochetes
D.
viruses
E.
Proteobacteria
5 points
QUESTION 12
The Cambrian Explosion provided a wealth of fossil remains for
scientists to uncover. Many of the animals from this time period
had tough skins or shells. This would
A.
make these animals more desirable to predators.
B.
be a disadvantage for these organisms and lead to their death
and fossil formation.
C.
allow the animals to move into different environments easily.
D.
protect the animal from osmotic pressure.
E.
protect the animal from predators.

5 points
QUESTION 13
What is the main difference between protists and bacteria?
A.
Bacteria are always gram-negative, protists are gram-positive
B.
Bacteria have DNA, protists do not.
C.
Protists have a nucleus, bacteria do not
D.
Protists cannot cause infections, bacteria can
E.
Protists are unicellular, bacteria are multicellular.
5 points
QUESTION 14
Most bacteria are
A.
chemoautotrophs.
B.
symbionts.
C.
photoautotrophs.
D.
microbial predators.
E.
heterotrophs.

5 points
QUESTION 15
Oxygen built up in the atmosphere approximately 2 billion years
ago and
A.
occurred because aerobic organisms required the oxygen.
B.
destroyed ozone forming more oxygen.
C.
could not have occurred without the oxygen coming from outer
space.
D.
helped to form the ozone layer that is so important to life today.
E.
occurred due to carbon dioxide being split by lightning strikes.
5 points
QUESTION 16
Endospores form
A.
to produce two offspring from every one parental cell.
B.
as a means of genetic recombination.
C.
when the environmental conditions are favorable.
D.
in response to adverse conditions.
E.
during binary fission.
5 points
QUESTION 17

Kelps are a form of what group of protists?
A.
ciliates
B.
dinoflagellates
C.
water molds
D.
slime molds
E.
brown algae
5 points
QUESTION 18
All but one of the following are false regarding protists.
Identify the true statement.
A.
Protists do not have the ability to move on their own.
B.
All protists are single-celled organisms.
C.
Protists are prokaryotic.
D.
Most protists are single-celled organisms; some are
multicellular.
E.
Protists have cell walls composed mainly of peptidoglycans.
5 points
QUESTION 19
During which geological era did Pangea break apart?
A.
Archean

B.
Paleozoic
C.
Cenozoic
D.
Mesozoic
E.
Proterozoic
5 points
QUESTION 20
Some bacteria can form resting structures called ___________
that can withstand extremes in temperature, moisture, and
radiation.
A.
endospores
B.
capsids
C.
prions
D.
viroids
E.
symbionts

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Week 14Analysis and Presentation of Data - Hypothesis Tes.docx