2. The Need For Studies of Sequence
Sequencing refers to the arrangement of learning objectives (LOs) for a
course into a logical teaching sequence.
Sequence learning is arguably the most dominant form of human and
animal learning. Sequences play a critical role in classical studies of
instrumental conditioning, in human skill learning, and in human high-
level problem solving and reasoning.
In the past, hierarchical, logical sequencing was not shown to be superior
to other modes of instruction, and the interaction of imagery, and
sequencing had not been examined.
In 1969, there were many experiments with different sequences in
program based instruction and computer based instruction.
A proper sequence provides the learners with a pattern of relationship so
that each activity will have a definite purpose. The more meaningful the
content, the easier it is to learn and, consequently, the more effective the
instruction.
3. Cont’d..
Proper sequencing also helps to avoid conflicts in the content of
the instruction. When material is carefully sequenced, duplication
is far less likely.
Developmentalist mentioned that cognitive capacities of learners,
emphasizing that sequence should be planned from the learner’s
point of view rather than a priori.
Robert Gagne’s findings showed that increasing complexity is not
always the best criterion for ordering material.
James Kallison, provided that the most important way to judge
sequence is that it reveals the relationship among parts.
4. sequencing methods
Some of the techniques and considerations used in sequencing are:
-Job Performance Order:
The learning objectives (LOs) are taught in the order in which the duties
and tasks are performed. In other words, the sequence is the same as the
job sequence.
-From Simple to Complex:
Objectives may be sequenced in terms of increasing complexity
- Critical Sequence:
Objects are ordered in terms of their relative importance
- Chronological order:
The sequencing of LOs is done in a way that is consistent with the order
in which the events occur in time.
5. Sequencing Methods
- Comparative sequence:
The familiar topics are taught before unfamiliar ones.
- Relationships between objectives :
The sequencing is done through a dependent or supportive
relationship between the LOs.
- Part to whole :
A set of LOs (the parts) are taught and mastered before the sets
In 1976,Gerald Posner and Kenneth Strike brought another four
types of sequencing: concept-related, inquiry related, learning-
related, and utilization related.
6. The Need for Analyzing Educational
Objectives
As early as 1956 Educational Psychologist Benjamin Bloom divided
what and how we learn into three separate domains of learning.
There are different objectives according to each domain of
curriculum.
Cognitive Domain includes content knowledge and the
development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or
recognition of specific facts and concepts that serve developing
intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories,
starting from the simplest behavior (recalling facts) to the most
complex (Evaluation).
It was found that in cognitive domain, the synthesis and
evaluation of the categories did not depend on integration with
lower level behaviors.
7. Cont’d
Current research casts doubt on uncertain conceptions of skill
hierarchies and spiraled curriculum. A few evidence support hierarchies
such as those in Bloom’s taxonomy.
Some people believe that increasing the complexity of the content and
task may increase the diversity of application and providing adequate
support for learning.
Affective domain includes
feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.
Psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and
use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires
practice and is measured in terms of
speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution.
The classification of objectives in the psychomotor and affective
domain was completed after 1969.
8. Major Categories in the Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives (Bloom 1956)
Cognitive Domain
Knowledge Comprehension Application
Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
11. Cont’d…
During the last decade the cognitive process has been greatly
strengthen by these studies:
1- Metacognitive processes : Knowledge of when and why to use
various strategies for problem solving.
2- The cognitive process underlying the act of planning, sentence
generations and revising
3- The process involved in mathematic activities.
Evidence of the change in curriculum development as a result of
cognitive psychology supplanting behaviorism can be found in
military curriculum development.
12. The Need for Process-Product Research
Process-product research is a method of quantitative research.
It differs from other forms of quantitative in that questions are
more concerned with the average amount of learning or
achievement accomplished by a group than with measuring,
predicting or explaining individual differences in learning due to
teachers behavior.
Process-product research attempts to relate instructional
variables to learner achievement and the curriculum planning
process to improved instruction and learning.
During 1960 to 1969 most of the process-product research dealt
with instructional objectives.
An instructional objective describes the specific teaching
outcome, the behavior required to perform it and determines
the means for measuring or evaluating it.
13. Problems with past process-product
research
According to Goodlad there were two problems with this king of
research: Methodological and Theoretical
- It was not always clear what established the process or treatment
and also it was not recognized that the treatment had been carried
out as required. (Methodological)
- It was often difficult to know the importance of small manageable
process-product equation within some large frame of
explanation.(Theoretical)
14. Problems with present process-product research
1. Research into instructional effectiveness by means of
input-output approach has not produced consistent
results.
2. There is no variable or resource which is shown to exert
a powerful influence on learning because of emphasizing
on generalization.
3. Investigators did not look for unique personal characteristic
4. Researchers assume that certain instructional variables are
directly relate to student achievement.
15. Current trends in process-product
research
1- Making clear distinction between curriculum issues and
instructional methods used. Curriculum content must be held in order
to study instructional methods.
2- Refining measurement instrument in order to measure how well
something is done and to assess molar instructional sequences
instead of separate behaviors .
Considering the limited range of measures that have been used to
assess curriculum, it is inadvisable to connect curriculum effects in
achievement with effectiveness.
3- Considering untapped questions such as what makes an effective
unit of instruction and how best to accommodate individual
differences.
16. References
Ron Sun, C. Lee Giles, “Sequence Learning: From
Recognition and Prediction to Sequential Decision
Making”
Christopher M.Clark , “Five Faces of Reseach on
Teaching”
Learning Domains or Bloom's Taxonomy
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/
Srivastava H.S. and J.P. Shourie (1989). Instructional
Objectives of School Subjects, NCERT, New Delhi.
