Ps 101 itroduction to poultry production full course

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PS-101 INTRODUCTION TO POULTRY PRODUCTION 2(1-2)
THEORY
Importance, history, present status and future perspectives of poultry industry;
classification of poultry breeds and varieties; (Manual on Avian Production and Management 5-
16) brooding, rearing and production practices inpoultry; rural vs commercial poultry production;
introduction to various body systems of the chicken; (Avian physiology) composition of poultry meat
and eggs.
PRACTICAL
Demonstration regarding body parts of poultry; demonstration of digestive; respiratory,
urinary and reproductive systems of a poultry; structure and composition of an egg;
demonstration of various routine practices at poultry farm.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED
1. Austic, R.E. and M.C. Nesheim. 1990. Poultry Production. Lea and Febiger
Philadelphia. USA.
2. Hunton, P. 1995. Poultry Production: Production System Approach. Elsevier Science
Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
3. Jadhav, N.V. 1998. Practical Manual for Avian Production and Management. Jaypee
Brothers, Medical Publishers (P) Ltd., New Delhi, India.
4. Jull, M.A. 2003. Successful Poultry Management. Biotech Books. Delhi India.
5. Owen, W.P. 2000. Poultry Farming and Keeping. Biotech Books. India.
By: Mr. Zaib-Ur-Rehman
Lecturer
Poultry Science, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi

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PS-101
INTRODUCTION TO POULTRY PRODUCTION
POULTRY
The term poultry is designated to those species of birds, which are economical
and can reproduce freely under human care. It includes chickens, ducks, turkeys,
pheasants, pigeons, guinea fowl and partridges etc.
POULTRY SCIENCE
Poultry science is the study of principles and practices involved in the production and
marketing of poultry and its products. It includes breeding, housing, incubation,
brooding, rearing, feeding, disease control and marketing but generally term “Poultry” is
used only for chickens, which serve as most economical source of animal protein food
and zoologically are named as Gallus domesticus.
BROILER
Broilers are those fast growing poultry birds of young age which are kept and
used only for meat purpose and produce tender meat with soft pliable and flexible breast
bone cartilage. They attain live body weight of 1.5 kg or more by consuming 3-4 kg of
feed in 6 weeks.
LAYER
Which lay table quality egg (for food of human consumption). Laying starts from
20-21 weeks and may lay 150 to 300 eggs per year.
BREEDERS
Birds of both sexes which are kept for breeding purpose to obtain fertilized eggs
for hatching to get chicks i.e. broilers or layers.
IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY FARMING
1. It provides egg and meat, which are highly nutritive supplementing foods
and have high quality protein.
2. It provides source of income and opportunities of employment at poultry
farms, hatcheries, poultry processing units, equipments manufactures,
meat and egg marketing channels etc.
3. In rural areas, since less investment is required to start the enterprises, it
has attained a status of “Cottage Industry”.
4. Quick returns can be expected from the investment.
5. Poultry manure is extremely rich source of nitrogen and organic matter. It
contains 1.0-1.8% nitrogen. 1.4-1.8% P2O2 and 0.8-0.9% K2O hence is
very good fertilizers.
6. In animal and medical research, birds are used as experimental unit.
PREFERENCE OF POULTRY FARMING OVER LIVESTOCK AND
AGRICULTURAL SECTION
The poultry farming is preferred over other sectors like livestock and agriculture
due to following reasons.
1. Size of bird is smaller than other larger animals.
2. Physiology of birds is simpler.
3. Birds have shorter maturity period.
4. Fertility rate is high.
5. Life span is short which can be extended in layers and breeders.
6. Balanced feed for birds can be easily managed.
7. They have simple digestive system.
8. Less land is required due to less space requirement per bird.
9. Poultry is quick and efficient converter of inputs into out puts.
10. Birds have the best feed conversion ratio (FCR) and feed efficiency.
11. Embryo development takes place outside rather than inside the body of dam
through placenta.
12. Incubation period of chicken is shorter (21 days) while large animals have
long gestation period.
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13. There is a continuous return of income while in case of land, seasons, labor,
seeds etc. required in fairly high amount and income return is based on yearly
basis while, poultry farming makes the least demand of land than crop
production and give maximum yield per unit area.
14. Dressing percentage is more (60%) in poultry as compared to large animals
(50-55%).
15. Several crop by-products and agricultural wastes are used in poultry feeding.
16. Poultry farming is within the reach of small farmers and offer good
opportunity for investors with limited financial resources.
ADVANTAGES OF POULTRY FARMING
Essential food items
The poultry meat and eggs are essential foods. The demand of poultry meat and
eggs is quite permanent. The poultry meat is appetizing and popular food. The eggs are
highly digestible, nutritious and taste. In future the demand for high quality poultry meat
and eggs seem to be very bright.
Quick return of high quality protein
There is a quick return of high quality protein. One and a half kilogram live-body
weight broiler can be produced in 6 weeks time. The layer chicks start laying eggs at
about 20 weeks of age and lays more than 270 eggs in a year.
Efficient source of high quality protein
Poultry farming is an efficient source getting good-quality food, rich in nutrition.
One and a half kilogram broiler can be produced by feeding 3 kilogram of feed. No other
meat product can be produced so efficiently on the farm. A dozen of eggs can be
produced on 1.75 kilograms of feed.
Income throughout the year
The income from both broiler farms and layers flock is distributed throughout the
year.
Quick turn-over of capital
There is quick turn-over of capital invested in poultry business. The capital
invested in broiler production returns in about two months and the capital invested in
laying flock starts coming back in about 20 weeks.
Part time as well as full time occupation
Poultry farming may be adopted as a large and small scale business. Broilers and
layers may be reared in the backyards in cities and small towns and on farms as a
commercial enterprise.
The poultry farming on small farms and at home may be a part time job while the
owner has other employment or business. It may be a full time occupation on large
commercial and specialized farms.
Managed by Ladies and Children
Poultry farming can be successfully managed by women, children and elderly
men because the work is not strenuous. It does not require high skill. These groups of
people may be very successful in poultry farming.
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DEVELOPMENT OF POULTRY
Birds were used first not for the food purpose but for entertainment e.g.
cockfighting. They had got also religious importance. But now there is a gradual
improvement in keeping these birds.
• Cock fighting banned due to cruelty.
• Birds were kept for exhibition purpose
• Specialized birds as food purpose.
• Small birds (Bantam) i.e. fancy birds
• Pure lines evolve.
American poultry Association started it's work in 1873 with an aim to maintain pure
bred breeding stock and before that people thought about the birds which were beautiful,
having same body confirmation, uniform in their type and plumage colour. In this way
they introduced breeds and varieties.
CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY
A group of standard breeds which have been develop in a certain region or
geographical area. There are four classes based on this definition:
1. Asiatic
2. English
3. American
4. Mediterranean
Breed
The group of birds belongs to same living place and having similar characteristics
including body shape, size and skin colour, e.g., Leghorn, Minorca.
Variety
Within a breed the group of birds differentiated (division) either by plumage
colour or shape of comb or feather pattern, e.g. Single comb WLH. Rose comb leghorn.
Strain
A specific chicken breeding flock bearing a given name and produced by a
breeder through at least five generations of closed flock mating and selected for certain
characteristics e.g. Babcock
Classification based on regions
For detailed reading please visit (http://139.78.104.1/breeds/poultry/)
i. Asiatic Class
ii. Mediterranean class
iii. American Class
iv. English Class
Characteristic American English Mediterranean Asiatic
1. Body size Medium Medium Light Heavy
2. Purpose Dual Dual Egg Meat
3. Shell colour Brown Brown White Brown
4. Ear lobe colour Red Red White Red
5. Skin colour Yellow White Yellow Yellow
6. Feathers on Shank No No No Yes
Commercial hybrid broilers have the following special qualities.
• Better body conformation
• Better carcass quality
• Better feed conversion
• Excellent table qualities
• Tender, juicy, nutritious fine white meat.
• Better and efficient growth rate.
• Lower mortality.
• Disease resistance
Hubbard, Hybro, Starbro, Cobb
Commercial hybrid layers have the following characteristics.
• Better and more egg production.
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• Better and bigger egg size.
• Better interior egg quality.
• Better shell quality.
• Early maturity.
• Lower rate of mortality.
• Efficient feed conversion into eggs.
Babcock, Nick Chick, Hi Sex, LSL, Hy-line Bovans
Incubation:
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The process during which in a period of three weeks microscopic germ is
developed into a chick capable of waling and eating etc. the period during which this
process is completed is called incubation period. Different species of birds have different
incubation period e.g., chicken egg hatch in 21 days, whereas the eggs of quails, ducks,
pheasants have 17, 28-30 and 28 days incubation period, respectively. During this period
suitable conditions are provided to the hatching eggs for best hatching results. The
incubation is of two type, namely, natural incubation and ratification incubation.
1) Natural Incubation
This is commonly used for backyard poultry keeping in villages in most of the
tropical countries of the world. In this method eggs are incubated with the help of broody
hens. It is a primitive method. But it is most effective methods to get a high percentage of
success. Natural hatching or hatching of eggs by hen is still popular with small poultry
keepers in remote rural areas in many part of our country. The most important thing in
this method is the selection of a broody hen. It should be of medium body size to
accommodate fair number of eggs and should be a good-sitter, quiet and free from
ectoparasites. A nest bedded with clean, dry and comfortable litter is prepared for this
purpose. Usually the nest is a saucer like shape where the hatching eggs are placed with
brooder end slightly upside. The nest is usually placed in a dark area of the house with
minimum disturbance. During incubation hen should not be disturbed. The hens should
be taken out at least twice a day for about 30 minutes for feeding and watering. The hen
should be well taken care of and protected from predators.
Depending on the size of hen, 10-15 eggs can be placed under one bird. The best
time of set hen is at a night as at this time she is more likely to settle down to her job.
Besides, when eggs are put under the hens at night, the chicken are more likely to appear
on the night of 21st
day and will have the whole night to rest and gain strength.
2) Artificial Incubation:
In this method of incubation, the requirements of incubation are fulfilled by a
machine called incubator. This method uses high modern and sophisticated technology
with automation for maximum hatchability. This method of incubation has many
advantages over natural incubation which are as under:
1. Large no. of eggs even up to lacs at a time can be incubated to meet high
commercial demand of chicks.
2. Incubation can be practiced throughout the year as there is no need for a
broody hen for this purpose.
3. The risk of disease transfer from hen to chicks is eliminated because of no
contact of the hen with eggs after laying.
4. The essential incubation requirements are provided with their optimum levels
to get maximum hatchability with quality hygienic care and minimum chances
of infections.
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5. Automation of incubators saves time and labour.
Types of Incubators
Principally there are two types of incubators viz. Small or still air incubators and
Mammoth or forced draft incubators. The mammoth incubators can have setters and
Hatcher separately, whereas the small incubators are usually a small combined like. In
case of chicken eggs setters are used to incubate eggs for first 18 days while chicks
actively hatch out for final 3 days in hatchers. A brief discussion about the incubators is
as under.
1. Small or still air incubators:
It is usually of small capacity, from 50 to 500 eggs, with only single layer
incubation, where the eggs lying flat in the machine. These incubators are heated by
kerosene oil or electricity. Ventilation is affected by changes of internal temperature.
These are also called still air incubators because the air inside the incubator circulates
under natural way of circulation without any mechanical devices for air circulation. In
these incubators, the eggs are placed in the egg tray in natural position. The turning of the
eggs is manual and individual, twice or thrice daily.
2. Cabinet Type (mammoth or forced draft) incubators:
The incubators are very capacious and generally cabinet like in shape. It enables
the breeder to incubate several thousand eggs with greater economy to develop his
business by selling baby chicks. These incubators are usually run by electricity. Eggs are
placed in the egg trays with broader end up, from the top to be bottom in the machine.
The eggs are turned either manually but collectively with the help of a handle, or
automatically with a time-controlled motor where the position of all the eggs can be
changed collectively. The temperature is evenly distributed in the entire machine by
either pads or fans which also control the ventilation process hence the name give ‘forced
draft machine’. Moister is usual provided from flat trays which have large evaporating
surfaces or by some farm of water spray injection arranged in conjunction with the
ventilation system or by injection of stream he incubator may be of a shape in which
setting and hatching is done in the same compartment or it may have separate setting or
hatching compartments. These incubators have been further improved by various
companies as detailed below.
a) Walk-in Incubators:
A walk-in incubator is infect a room into which it is possible to walk or to wheel
trolleys and in which staff can work. It may be cabinet type construction and capable of
being erected and operated in an existing building or it may be of a built-in type in which
the shell of the incubator room forms an integral part of the hatchery structure and walls
of the room have to bear loads over and above their functional requirements of rigidity
and insulation. In both types, the arrangements of setting, turning and hatching equipment
are similar to those of the large cabinet incubators, but the heating and ventilation are
much more fully automatic than cabinet type incubator. These type of incubators provide
grate economy of floor space and consequent reduction in capital costs, and in time and
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labour for maintenance and oppression of the hatchery.
b) Drive in Incubator:
Some walk-in machine involves the transfer of eggs from the trolleys to setting
racks and trays may be set in blocks or alternately. Other machines allow the eggs to be
wheeled into the incubator or in and trolley, with the same trolley remaining in the
machines as the frame holding the trays of eggs during incubation. In the latter methods
eggs are obviously in blocks according to stage of development and different
manufactures of incubators have the trolleys positioned in different ways. As opposed to
walk-in these machines may be described as drive-in incubators.
INCUBATION REQUIREMENTS
For best hatchability results, each of the following environmental conditions must
be controlled and kept within definite limits.
1. Temperature: it is the most critical factor for the successful hatching of the
chicks because developing chicks are very sentience to the temperature of the
environment. Low temperature slows down the development process and therefore results
in late hatching with low hatchability. A continuous high incubation temperature results
in early in hatching results due to an increase in crippled and deformed chicks and
mortality of chicks. Therefore, the suitable temperature should be maintained as under:
A. Small Incubators:
First week 102.5 – 103 °F
2nd
and 3rd
week 102°F
18th
day to end of hatch 100 – 101 °F
B. Mammoth Incubator:
Setter : 99.5°F (For 1st
18 days)
Hatcher : 99.0°F (For the last 3 days)
2. Relative humidity: Hatchability of eggs is definitely affected by moisture
conditions inside the incubators. The relative humidity for best hatching results should be
55-60% during first 18 days and should be increased 5-10% after that up to hatching of
chicks. High relative humidity results in the production of wet chicks and abnormal
growth of the embryo. Whereas, low humidity causes stickiness of the chicks with the
shell membrane resulting into poor hatching results. It also increases the production of
deformed and weak chicks. Normally 11 to 13% inherent water content may be lost
during incubation without harmful results.
3. Ventilation: Incoming of the fresh air into incubator and outgoing of the foul air
from the incubator is also a key to the success of hatching results. Because the chick
embryos being living organism require oxygen for their development and give off carbon
dioxide. Therefore optimum level of oxygen (21%) and carbon dioxide (0.4%) are very
much essential for good hatching results. If the amount of carbon dioxide exceeds 1.0%
limit the hatching results will be adversely affected whereas, the increase in carbon
dioxide upto 2% will cause drastic reduction in hatchability. When carbon dioxide
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concentration in the incubator reaches upto 5% level, the hatching results would be zero.
Therefore, for successful optimum level of oxygen and carbon dioxide are required in the
incubator. Still air machine need more ventilation near the end of the hatch, while there is
no such problem in forced draft incubators normally.
4. Position of the Hatching Eggs and Turning:
Eggs are normally incubated broader end up or by placing in the natural position.
Under these conditions, the head of the embryo develops within the broader and near the
air-cell. However, when the eggs are incubated small and up the majority of the embryos
develop with their head in the small end of the egg and frequently these embryos do not
hatch.
Frequent turning of eggs is essential for movement of embryo in the eggs during
first phase of incubation to avoid sticking and setting of embryos to the shell. Turning
also facilities uniform heating of the egg content in auto-operated incubators. Usually, the
eggs are turned through an angle of 40-45° on both sides for 5 or 7 times a day in the
setter, leading to maximum hatchability. Whereas turning is not required in hatcher.
However, if the eggs are left in a single position throughout the incubation period the
hatching results ill be very poor. Turning must be gentle and on both sides.
BROODING:
Special care and management during first 5 to 6 weeks of a chick’s life until they do not
required artificial heat is termed as brooding.
Types of Brooders:
Brooders are different types:
1) Drum type 2) Coal burning 3) Wood burning
4) Electric brooder 5) Gas brooder
1) Drum Type
Heat is radiated from drum towards chicks on floor. Temperature is controlled by
thermostat that regulates flow of oil to brooder.
2) Coal Burning
Commonly used where fuel (coal) is comparatively cheaper. Temperature is
controlled by thermostat.
3) Wood Burning
Wood burning brooders are commonly used in Pakistan especially where wood is
in plenty and available at cheaper rate.
4) Electric Brooders
Mostly used in cold and mild weather. They have advantages
i) Temperature can be accurately controlled.
ii) They require little attention.
iii) Thermostat control is possible.
iv) Electric brooder relatively easier to run.
5) Gas Brooder
Similar to electric brooders it also requires little attention. Gas brooders are more
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economical & dependable than electric brooders because chance of breakdown of supply
is very rare.
DIFFERENT MANAGEMENTAL PRACTICES DURING
The following are the materials/practices, which are required during brooding.
1. Litter materials
2. Chick Guard
3. Proper floor space
4. Sanitation
5. Flushing
6. Feeding
7. Broad spectrum antibiotics
8. Vaccination
9. Debeaking
10. Avoid predators and pilfering
1. Litter Materials
Type and condition of litter material is very important during brooding. Many
types of litter material such as sawdust, rice hulls, wood shaving is being used Sawdust
makes a good litter material because of its high absorbing property. Softwood saw dust is
preferred over the hard wood sawdust because of lower tannin contents.
Properties of Good Litter Material
1. More absorbent
2. Light in weight
3. Medium size particles
4. Inexpensive
A litter that has been treated with an insecticide, herbicide or other chemicals may
not be used. Paper is spread on the litter for early 2-3 days to reduce picking by birds.
2. Brooder Guards
Brooder guards are necessary to confine day-old chicks to the heated area and to
concentrate the feeders and waters within small areas. They are also helpful to keep out
draft and cold air. A guard made of cardboard, wood or metal sheet with 15 to 18 inches
height should be placed around the hover. The distance of guard from the stove should be
about 30 inches (76 cm) in winter and 36 inches (91 cm) is summer.
Once the chicks learn the source of supplementary heat, the guard must be
expanded to allow a greater area inside them. Guards could be used for 6 to 9 days.
3. Floor Space Requirement
Growth and feed conversion are related to floor space per requirement bird, over
crowding due to less floor space results decreased feed consumption, growth rate and
feed efficiency and it increases the chances of cannibalism and mortality. The amount of
floor space necessary for each chick during the first 5 or 6 weeks of its life is given in
table.
Types of bird Floor space per bird
ft2 M2 Birds/m2
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Broiler 0.50 0.05 20.0
Leghorn egg type pullet 0.758 0.070 14.3
Leghorn egg breeder pullet 0.85 0.079 12.7
Leghorn egg type cockerels 0.00 0.093 10.8
Meat type breeder pullet 1.00 0.093 10.8
Meat type breeder cockerels 1.25 0.116 8.6
4. Sanitation
During brooding care should be taken regarding sanitation because chicks are
very sensitive to diseases. A brooder house should be thoroughly cleaned and well
disinfected at least one week before the arrival of chicks. Spray formalin 40% (1:12 i.e.
formalin : water) to the brooding room. Keep separate attendants in the brooder houses
and do not allow them to move in other sheds. Keep visitors away from the brooder
house and take care of your address when you visit the brooder house.
Damp litter and sick birds cause the spreading of disease; keep the litter dry of
frequent stirring of litter. Using super phosphate on litter not only acts as absorbent but
also act as preservative for making a good fertilizer after mixing with droppings.
Frequent change of waterers place will help to keep the litter dry.
Sick birds should be isolated and treated properly. Dead birds should be disposed
off by using disposal pit or burning. Adult birds should not be mixed with young chicks.
5. Flushing
Flushing with 3% sucrose solution is done to provide readily available source of
energy to the bird. This practices also clears the digestive tract chicks.
6. Feeding
First feeding should be done 4-5 hours after flushing. Pure good quality ground
maize should be given first day alone then for 2-3 days as a part of feed. It provides good
source of energy and it contains high fibre contents which prevent pasting.
1st
day ----------- Pure Ground maize
2nd daynn ----------- 50% GM + 50% Feed
3rd
day ----------- 25% GM + 75% Feed
4th
day ----------- 100% Feed
Ground maize due to higher fibre contents prevents pasting.
7. Broad Spectrum Antibiotics
During 1st
week, using any of the following broad-spectrum antibiotic may helps
in reducing the chances of infections.
• Furazolidone 15-20 g/bag feed for seven days
• Furazole 80 g/bag for seven days
• Furasole 1 teaspoon/gallon water
• Tribersin 1 cc/gallon water
• Trimodin 1 teaspoon/gallon water
• Erythro FZ 1 teaspoon/litre water
In winter medicine is used usually through feed and in summer mostly through water.
8. Vaccination
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To reduce chances of disease outbreaks following vaccines must be used in
addition to other vaccines.
From 7-10 days ND eye drops
From 10-14 days Gumboro eye drops
From 22-25 days ND 1/2 CC (sub-cut)
From 30-32 days Gumboro in drinking water
From 6-8 weeks Fowl pox (wing web)
9. Debeaking
Debeaking not only prevents cannibalism, toe picking, vent picking and feather
picking, it also increase the feed efficiency of the birds. Besides it make the flock
uniform and improve the live ability. Debeaking is doen at the age of 10-15 days, it
involves cutting of 1/3 of the upper beak by an electric debeaker.
10. Avoid Predators and Pilfering
Predators like the mice, managoose, dog and cat etc. can be controlled by traps
and using chemicals. Their control is necessary because they can waste the feed and
transmit many diseases. Pilfering at the farm could be avoided by sudden visits and
through checking the record.
POULTRY HOUSING
Poultry housing permits the organization and concentration of the flock into a
manageable unit and it provides a physical environment conductive to optimal egg, or
poultry meat production. Some of the important considerations in poultry house
construction are given below.
1. The site of the farm should be marshy, water logged or flood affected.
2. Farm should away from man city but approachable.
3. Water supply, gas and electricity should be available at the site.
4. Construction should be well managed according to the type of the birds that
are planned to be reared.
5. Direction of the shed should be east to west.
6. Length of the shed may vary from 100 to 300ft.
7. Width of the shed should be 30ft. in open side house and it may very up to
50ft. in case of environment control house.
8. Height of the shed may vary from 10-12 ft.
9. Shed to shed distance should be 50ft.
10. Farm to farm distance should be 1 to 3 km.
HOUSING REQUIREMENTS
1. Length
100 ft of one shed, if 300-400 ft. then partition after each 100 ft.
2. Width
Normally 30 ft. if more than 30ft. there is ventilation problem. In environmental control
house it may be 40-50 ft.
3. Height
In hot areas 12-14 ft. but in cold areas 8-10 ft.
4. Distance
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It should be 50fl. between two poultry sheds. 100 ft. from road. 1km.between two farms
and for breeder forms it should be 3km.
5. Floor Space
1 sq ft area =1 broiler, 1.5 sq ft area =1 layer, 2 sq ft area = 1 breeder (egg type), 3.5 sq ft
area= I breeder (meat type).
6. Ventilation
Proper ventilation (not drought) to carry in fresh air is needed. It also maintains normal
humidity. More the distance between inlets and outlets more will be ventilation.
7. Humidity
For hatching purpose 70-80% and for poultry house it should be 60-65%. Low humidity
causes dry, dusty litter, respiratory problems and poor hatching, where as very high
humidity causes growth of fungus, mould and parasitic infections. For proper humidity
level provide adequate ventilation.
8. Temperature
For storage of eggs 55°F, for hatching (eggs) 99.25-99.75°F. For brooding of day old
chicks 95 °F at start and for poultry house 70-75°F.
9. Sunshine
In cold climate, raising curtains from side walls brings spring like conditions by exposing
poultry house to more and more sunshine. In hot areas, curtains from front are raised to
have good ventilation and sunshine and down when temperature starts to rise than
normal.
10. Dryness
Dampness causes discomfort to birds and also give rise to problems like colds,
pneumonia etc. Dampness in poultry house is caused by moisture rinsing through leaky
floors or walls, rain or snow entering through windows and leaky water container of birds
and from bird’s droppings, so proper ventilation to keep proper dryness is required. Use
good quality litter, which have more adsorption of moisture.
EQUIPMENTS
Equipments Capacity Required Unit Cost
(Rs.)
Total Cost
(R*.)
(A) Equipments
for
1, 000 Broilers
Brooder l/500 Chicks 2 500 1000
Chick Guard 1/250 Chicks 4 200 800
Litter Bags 15 Bags/500 Chicks 30 60/Bag 1800
Paper 1 kg/200 5kg 20/kg 100
Feeders
Trough feeder (in) 1/40 Birds 25 35 875
Tube feeder (38cm) 1/32 Birds 31 50 1550
Automatic drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000
Round Waterer (5L) 1/30 Birds 33 65 2145
(B) Equipments for 1000 Layers
Brooding Period
Brooder l/500Chicks 2 500 1000
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Chick Guard 1/250 Chicks 4 200 800
Tube feeder 1/50 Chicks 20 50 1000
Trough feeder 1/50 Chicks 20 35 700
Drinker (2L) 1/25 Chicks 40 20 800
Paper 1 kg/200 Chicks 5kg 20 100
Rearing Period
Tube feeder (38cm) 1/40 Birds 25 50 1250
Automatic drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000
Waterer 1/25 Birds 40 65 2600
Laying Period
Tube feeder 1/30 Birds 1 1 50 1650
Waterer 1/25 Birds 40 65 2600
Automatic Drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000
Nests 1/5 Hens 17 Units 1 500 25500
COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT CONTROL POULTRY HOSE
COMPONENT/SYSTEMS OF ENVIRONMENT CONTROL HOUSES
Cone Fan Box Fan Feeder Feed Bin Layer Cages
Inlet Controller Trough feeder Pad &Fan Nipple Drinker
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Electric Generator Diesel Heater Coal Heater Electric panel Cooling Pad
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED EFFICIENT PERFORMANCE OF ENVIRONMENT
CONTROL POULTRY HOUSES
Temperature
Meter
Lux Meter CFM Meter pH Meter Temperature
/Hygrometer
Static Pressure
Meter
Insulation Tester Co2 Tester Ammonia Meter Oxygen Meter
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
This system is responsible for the break down of complex non absorbable components
like carbohydrate, protein, and fats into relatively simplest and absorbable unit like
glucose, amino acid and fatty acids respectively known as digestive system.
This process of digestion is completed by the action of various enzymes secreted by the
digestive system. Thus it is known as the largest gland of the body. For ease to
understand the basic physiological function of digestive system it is divided into
following parts.
1. Mouth
2. Pharynx
3. Esophagus/gullet
4. Crop
5. Proventriculus
6. Gizzard
7. Small intestine
8. Caeca
9. Large intestine
10. Cloaca
11. Vent
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE GLANDS:
The glands which aid in the process of digestion are known as accessory digestive glands
and are following.
1. Salivary glands
2. Liver
3. Pancrease
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MOUTH:
Mouth is made up of upper mandible and lower mandible collectively
known as beak. The upper mandible is attached with skull and it is non-movable part
of beak while the lower mandible is attached hinged and it is movable part of beak.
The roof of mouth is made up of hard palate that is divided by a long narrow slit in
the centre that is opened to the nasal passage. While the soft palate is absent in the
birds except pigeon. The openings or slit in the hard palate and absence of soft palate
make it impossible for the birds to create a vacuum to draw the water or feed into the
mouth. Thus birds have to scoop up the water when drinking elevates its head and
then let the water run down the gullet by the action of gravity.
The base of mouth is made up of tongue and it has rough surface at the beak to help
force the feed into esophagus or gullet. The base of the tongue has papilla, which
contains very few numbers of taste buds. The taste buds help to taste the feed.
PHARYNX:
Pharynx is a common passageway for feed as well as for air and is
divided into two parts.
1. Esophagus
2. Larynx
ESOPHAGUS:
Esophagus is a tube like structure that extends from mouth to
Proventriculus and it helps to carry the feed from mouth towards Proventriculus.
CROP:
Crop is the extension of esophagus located in the neck region. It is
responsible for the storage of feed but when the Proventriculus or gizzard is empty the
feed by pass the crop. Little digestion takes place with the action of salivary amylase.
PROVENTRICULUS/GLANDULAR STOMACH/TRUE STOMACH:
It is a specialized enlargement of the gullet just before entry into the gizzard. This organ
is responsible for the production of gastric juice, which is made up of the proenzyme
known as pepsinogen and an acid known as hydrochloric acid. The gastric juice produced
in response to protein content in diet. The feed is stored for the short period in the
Proventriculus and moves towards the gizzard thus major process of digestion take place
in the gizzard.
GizzardMuscular StomachVentriculus
Gizzard is made up of two pairs of powerful muscles capable of crushing and grinding
the feed particle. This structure is located between the Proventriculus and small intestine.
As feed enters the gizzard it performs Powerful muscular contraction, which ultimately
leads to crushing and grinding of the particles. This process is aided by the presence of
grit or rocks present in the gizzard .The gizzard performs 2-5 contractions per minute
according to the consistency of the feed particle.
Small Intestine.
Small intestine is 62 inch (1.5 metre) long in the adult bird. Small intestine has three
parts.
1) Duodenum , 2) Jejunum, 3) Ileum.
Duodenum makes the loop known as duodenal loop which contain the pancrease
.Digestion of carbohydrates, protein, and fat take place in the small intestine with the help
of intestinal juice, pancreatic juice, and secretion of liver known as bile. Intestinal juice
contains variety of enzymes such as amylase, invertase , and trypsin. The first two
enzymes are responsible for the break down of complex carbohydrates into simple sugars
such as glucose, maltose etc . While trypsin is responsible for break down of intermediate
proteins like proteoses, peptoses into aminoacids. Similarly pancreatic juice contains
variety of enzymes that do take part in digestion of carbohydrates, protein and fat. The
bile produced from the liver is responsible for emulsification of fat which is then digested
by variety enzymes. After completion of digestion the end product of carbohydrate
(glucose) protein (amino acid) fats (fatty acid) are absorbed by the finger like projections
of small intestine known as villi. The amino acid and fatty acids and glycerol are
absorbed into the lymphatic vessels. These end products are ultimately reached to the
liver via portal vein.
Caeca:
These are two blind pouches located between the small intestine and large
intestine having a length of 6 inches (1.5 cm). The function of Caeca is not clear but it is
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thought that it takes part in digestion of carbohydrate, proteins, and crude fibre with the
help of bacterial action.
Large Intestine:
Large intestine is much smaller as compared to small intestine and
caecum. The length of large intestine is 4 inches (10 cm) and the diameter is twice the
diameter of small intestine. It extends from small intestine to cloaca. It helps to maintain
water balance by water absorption.
Cloaca:
It is the bulbous/enlarged area located at the end of large intestine. It is also
known as common sewer because it receives the openings from digestive system,
reproductive system and urinary system.
Vent:
External opening of the cloaca is known as vent and its size is variable depending
upon the productivity of the birds.
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:
There are three types of accessory digestive glands which play a vital role in the process
of digestion.
Salivary Glands:
This gland is responsible for production of saliva. The saliva has
following functions.
1. Saliva causes the lubrication of the feed.
2. Saliva has a enzyme known as salivary amylase or ptyalin. It is responsible for the
break down of glycosidic linkage and thus it splits carbohydrates molecule. This
enzyme acts on starch and converts into maltose.
3. Saliva acts as a buffer because it contains bicarbonate and other salts.
4. It also helps in tasting the feed.
5. It protects the mucous membrane and keeps it moist.
6. It helps regulate the body temperature.
7. Saliva contain enzyme known as muramidase which is bacteriosidal in nature and
thus it produces the local immunity.
Pancrease:
Pancrease produces a pancreatic juice having a ph of 6.9 and is released in
the distal end of the loop of duodenum.
Composition of Pancreatic juice:
Pancreatic juice contains four kinds of enzymes.
Proteolytic Enzymes: There are five different kinds of proteolytic enzymes.
1. Trypsinogen
2. Chymotrypsinogen A
3. Chymotrypsinogen B
4. Procarboxy peptidase A
5. Procarboxy peptidase B
These enzymes are responsible for the break down of protein molecules into simpler
units.
Lipolytic Enzyme:
a) Phospholipase b) pancreatic lipase
c) Cholesterol esterase
The first two enzymes are responsible for the break down of lipids while third
enzyme is responsible for esterification of cholesterol.
Carbohydrate splitting Enzymes:
a) Pancreatic amylase b) Invertase
Pancreatic amylase acts on the starch and converts it into simpler units while
invertase acts on the sucrose and convert them into simpler sugars.
Nucleolytic Enzymes:
There are two kinds of nucleolytic enzymes.
a) Ribonuclease b) Deoxyribonuclease
Besides enzymes pancreatic juice also contains cations and anions.
Cations: Na+, K+, Mg++, etc.
These act as buffer, cofactors, and osmotic regulators.
Anions: HCO3
These act as buffer and osmotic regulators.
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LIVER:
Liver is a bilobed structure and it perform a variety of functions.
1. After the digestion of feed the feed is taken up by the villi of small intestine
which then enters in the hepatic portal circulation and mobilized towards the
liver. The feed is detoxified by the liver and then distribute to the entire body.
2. It also act as a store house for the vitamins and carbohydrates. The
carbohydrates are stored in the form of glycogen.
3. The liver is responsible for the formation plasma protein like albumin and
globulin.
4. It activates and inactivates the protein and peptide hormones.
5. Liver is a site for the destruction of old RBCs which ultimately leads to the
formation of bile, which is responsible for the emulsification of the fat.
MECHANISM OF ENZYME PRODUCTION AND ACTIVATION:
The activities of gastrointestinal tract are controlled by nervous system and endocrine
system. In case of nervous system autonomic nervous is responsible for controlling the
activity of gastrointestinal tract. This system has two parts.
1. Parasympathetic nervous system.
2. Sympathetic nervous system.
The parasympathetic nervous system activates the gastrointestinal tract while
sympathetic nervous system activates as well as deactivates the gastrointestinal tract.
When the feed enter the oral cavity, the visual stimuli, smell and taste stimulate the
parasympathetic which ultimately leads to the production saliva. Similarly when feed
enters the Proventriculus the walls are stretched leading to the release of a hormone
known as gastric juice when the feed enters small intestine the duodenum produces the
secretin which stimulate the pancrease to produce pancreatic juice. In response to the fats,
the duodenum produces another hormone known as cholycystokinin, which causes the
stimulation of gall bladder and the release of bile.
ACTIVATION OF ENZYMES:
The enzyme present in the gastric
juice i.e. pepsinogen is stimulated by HCl or pepsin into the active form known as pepsin.
The proteolytic enzymes present in the pancreatic juice are released in inactive form the
trypsinogen is activated by another enzyme known as enterokinase, which is released
from duodenum
Carboxy peptidase ← Procarboxy Peptide
Enterokinase → trypsinogen → trypsin↑↓
Chymotrypsin← Chymotrypsinogen
Regulation of Feeding:
There are different factors affecting the regulation
of feeding in birds which are as followings.
1. Size
2. Sex/gender of the bird
3. Age of the bird
4. Body temperature & ambient temperature
5. Activity
6. Reproductive stage
7. Appearance and taste of feed
8. Energy contents of feed.
Composition of Intestinal Juice:
Intestinal juice is composed of following.
1. Peptidase (Erepsin)
2. Sucrase (invertase)
3. Maltase
4. Lactose
5. Nucleotidase
6. Polynucleotidase
Mechanism of Hunger:
There are two systems or centres located in the
brain or liver which controls the feeding behaviour of animals.
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1. Statiey centre
2. Appetite centre
The stimulation of statiety centre leads to the ceasation of feed in take and is activated
by the elevated level of glucose in the blood. This centre is located in the liver of the
chicken while in other animals it is located in the brain. This centre is also known as
glucostatiey centre.
Appetite Centre:
The stimulation of this centre results in feed intake or
hunger. This center is stimulated by low concentration of glucose in the blood. This is
located in the brain.
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiratory system comprise of
i. Nasal opening
ii. Nasal passage
iii. Trachea
iv. Bronchi (bronchus)
v. Lungs
vi. Air sacs
The respiratory system of birds is entirely different from that of mammals in the
following aspects.
1. The tracheal rings are complete in case of birds while incomplete in the mammals.
2. The organ of phonation (syrinyx) is located at the bifurcation of trachea rather
than near pharynx.
3. The lungs are fixed in position and can not contract and expand in the respiration
while in mammals the reverse is true.
4. Air sacs are present in the birds while absent in case of mammals. The air sacs are
extended to the bones known as pneumatic bones. These structures have the
ability to contract and expand with respiration.
5. Diaphragm is absent in birds while it is present in case of mammals.
TRACHEA:
Trachea conducts the air from nasal cavity and mouth to the
bronchus or bronchi in addition it also causes the warming and moisturing of air as well
as it also causes the screening of dust and foreign material. Thus it also provides the local
immunity by filtering or screening the dust particles with the help of cilia and mucous as
well as production of immunoglobin (Ig A) thus are antibodies.
The trachea after entering into the body bifurcates into two structures known as bronchi
(Right bronchus, left bronchus).
BRONCHI:
Bronchial system of bird consists of three orders of branching before the gas exchange
units are reached.
1. Primary bronchus
2. Secondary bronchus
3. Tertiary bronchus (Para bronchi)
4. Peri perabronchial mental
PRIMARY BRONCHI:
The primary bronchus arises from the bifurcation
trachea. It has two parts.
a) Extra pulmonary primary bronchus
b) Intra pulmonary primary bronchus
The part of the bronchus outside the lung is known as extra pulmonary primary bronchus
while the part within lungs is known as intra pulmonary primary bronchus.
Primary bronchus is made up of circular cartilage rings and has a well developed layer of
smooth muscles which control the diameter or size of the bronchus.
SECONDARY BRONCHI:
The bronchus arising from the primary
bronchus is known as secondary bronchus. In most of the birds secondary bronchi are
arranged into four groups.
a) Medioventral
b) Mediodorsal
c) Lateroventral
d) Laterodorsal
The cervical, clavicular, and cranial thoracic air sacs arise from the medioventral group
of secondary bronchi while caudal thoracic and abdominal air sacs are derived from
mediodorsal and lateroventral group of secondary bronchi.
TERTIARY BRONCHI:
The tertiary bronchi (Para bronchi) are derived from
the multiple ramifications of secondary bronchi. These are long narrow tubes that display
a high degree of anastmosis. The parabronchi give rise to a specific structure known as
atria which is out pocketing on the surface of Para bronchi. The atria give rise to
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extensions known as infundibuli. The infundibuli gives rise to final extensions known as
air capillaries.
The atria, infundibuli, and air capillaries collectively leads to the formation of a gas
exchange unit peri Para bronchial mental. The blood capillaries make close contact with
peri para bronchial mental and thus the exchange of gases takes place between the blood
present in the blood capillaries and air present in the air capillaries.
In most of the birds two kinds of Para bronchi are present.
1. Paleopulmonic Para bronchi
2. Neopulmonic para bronchi
The Para bronchi located towards the cranium air sacs are known as paleopulmonic para
bronchi while those located towards the posterior or caudal air sacs are known as
neopulmonic para bronchi.
AIR SACS:
The birds have 9 air sacs.
Two cervical
One clavicular
Two anterior thoracic/ cranial
Two posterior thoracic/ caudal
Two abdominal
The air sacs are the continuation of the secondary bronchi. Air sacs are made up of thin
walled structure which comprise of simple squamous epithelium and a thin layer of
connective tissue. The walls of air sacs are poorly vascularized (poor blood supply) due
to which non significant exchange of gas takes place. The air sacs are extended to certain
bones and make them pneumatic in nature. The air sacs are extended to the cervical
vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum, humerus, pelvis, head, and body of femur.
The air sacs are responsible for providing the space during the respiratory cycle and there
by function to increase the pulmonary ventilation.
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION:
The respiratory mechanism is composed of two processes.
1. Inspiration
2. Expiration
Inspiration or Inhalation:
The inspiration is a process during which the air is
taken up by the bird and process in the lungs. This process is active process because it
consumes energy while in case of mammals this process is passive.
Expiration or Exhalation:
The discharge or removal of air into the
environment is known as expiration or exhalation. This process is passive in nature in
birds while active in case of mammals. As the birds are lacking in diaphragm but so the
process of respiration depends upon thoracic, abdominal, and cervical muscles. During
the process of inspiration the inspiratory muscles contract ultimately leading to the
increase in internal abdominal thoracic volume and pressure decreases.
Due to this process the pressure in the air sacs is reduced and air from external
environment moves towards the air sacs through neopulmonic para bronchi while
towards cranial air sacs through paleopulmonic para bronchi. During the process of
respiration the exchange of gases takes place in the mental of neopulmonic para bronchi
and paleopulmonic para bronchi. The oxygen moves towards the blood from air
capillaries while carbon dioxide moves towards the air capillaries from gut. The
exchange of gases depends upon the difference of partial pressure of particular gas either
in air capillaries or blood stream present in the blood capillaries.
The blood capillaries and peri para bronchial mental are arranged in a specific type of
arrangement known as cross current arrangement. In this type of arrangement the air
capillaries and blood capillaries are present at right angle to each other due to which
maximum exchange of gases takes place by diffusion.
In the process of respiration the respiratory muscles contract leading to an increase in the
intra thoracoabdominal pressure which ultimately generates the pressure on air sacs thus
leading to expiration of inhaled air. The air present in the caudal air sacs is passed
through the neopulmonic para bronchi. The air then enters the cranial air sacs while the
air present in the cranial air sacs is removed and the air entering from the caudal air sacs
is removed during the second respiratory cycle.
THERMOREGULATION:
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The birds like mammals are homeothermic
in nature because they tend to maintain the temperature of deeply seated organs like
brain, liver, heart, intestine etc. In homeothermic animals the amount of heat produced by
the muscular exercise and metabolic activity like oxidation of glucose is equal to the
amount of heat loss from the animal to its environment. The heat is lost to the
environment by the process
a) Radiation
b) Conduction
c) Convection
d) Evaporation/panting
Radiation:
The heat exchanged by the radiation involves the transfer of heat
by electromagnetic wave and consist of heat transfer within both the visible and infrared
portion of spectrum.
Conduction:
Loss of heat by this process involves the direct transfer of heat
from the animal body surface to the air. The loss of heat by the process of conduction is
very low because the thermal conductivity of skin and subcutaneous tissue is also low.
Convection:
Heat loss by the process of convection takes place due to direct
contact of air or any other material with skin of animal. The heat loss by this process
depends upon the velocity of air as well as the temperature of air. The heat loss by this
process also depends upon the surface area of body in contact with air.
Evaporationpanting:
The birds do not contain the sweat glands due to
which the loss of heat from skin by the form of evaporation is not possible. On the other
hand the heat loss occur by evaporation from the most lining of respiratory tract as well
as the tongue.
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CIRCULATORY PHYSIOLIGY AND BLOOD
FUNCTIONS
Following are the components of circulatory system.
1. Heart
2. Blood vessels
3. Blood
HEART:
Heart is located in the thoracic cavity slightly towards the left side of
medial line and ventral to the lungs. The heart is of birds is like that of mammals is
composed of four chambers including two atria and ventricles.
The upper two chambers of heart are known as atria while the lower two are known as
ventricles. The right atrium is larger as compared to left one in case of birds. The atria
has opening into the ventricles which are closed by the atrioventricular valve.
The left valve is thin membranous and bicuspid while the right valve is simply muscular
flap. The valve of the aorta and pulmonary arteries are like those in mammals. The inner
side of the heart is covered with a thin membrane known as endocardium. The valve of
heart is known as myocardium and it consist of cardiac muscles. The outer surface of
heart is known as epicardium. Muscles of ventricles are thick as compared to the muscles
atria. The heart is enclosed in a sheath or sac like structure known as pericardium or
pericardial sac. The pericardium contains special type of fluid which acts as lubricant and
decreases the friction during the process of contraction and relaxation of heart muscles.
FUNCTIONS OF HEART COMPONENTS:
The right atrium receives the blood from the whole body with the help of vana cava and
it is deoxygenated in nature. The contraction of right atrium pumps the blood into the
right ventricle. The blood from the right ventricle is drained into the lungs with the help
of pulmonary artery. It also contains the deoxygenated blood. After the oxygenation of
blood in the lungs the blood is taken up by the pulmonary veins drained into the left
atrium. The contraction of left atrium pumps the blood into left ventricle. The contraction
of left ventricle pumps the blood into the whole body with the help of aorta (the largest
artery in the body).
Terminologies Used in Cardiovascular Physiology:
Blood Pressure:
The pressure which is exerted by the blood against the blood
vessels during the process of circulation is known as blood pressure and it is of two types.
1. Systolic pressure
2. Diastolic pressure
Systolic Pressure:
The pressure which is developed by the contraction of ventricles
is known as systolic pressure and it is higher than diastolic pressure.
Diastolic Pressure:
The pressure which is developed by the contraction atria or
relaxation of ventricles is known as diastolic pressure.
Heart Beat:
The contraction and relaxation of the heart is known as heart beat.
Pulse:
The rhythmic expansion and contraction of the arteries is known as pulse and is
equal to the heart beat.
Blood Vessels:
The cardiovascular system is made up of three types of blood vessels
which are known as follows.
1. Artery
2. Vein
3. Capillary
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Artery:
It is a type of blood vessels which take the oxygenated blood mostly and
distribute the blood to the whole body. The only exception is present in the artery which
contains the deoxygenated blood. The arteries are located in the depth of the body and
have a pulse. The smaller arteries which are developed by the bifurcation of larger
arteries are known as arterioles which ultimately lead leads to the formation of
capillaries.
The major arteries of the birds are as follows.
i. Carotid artery takes blood towards brain.
ii. Renal artery carries the blood to the kidneys.
iii. Testicular artery takes blood to the gonads.
iv. Coronary artery takes blood to the walls of heart e.g. myocardium.
v. Aorta major artery originates from heart.
Vein:
The vessels which drain the blood from whole body into the heart are known as
veins. These are located on the superficial surface of the body and do not possess the
pulse. Mostly they contain deoxygenated blood but the exception is present in the
pulmonary vein which contains oxygenated blood. These vessels are formed by the union
of capillaries which lead to the formation of vevvles. These vevvles then unite to form the
large vessels known as veins. Major veins are as follows.
i. Coronary vein it drain the blood from heart walls e.g. myocardium.
ii. Jugular vein takes blood from brain to heart.
iii. Renal vein collects blood from kidney.
iv. Vana cava major vein that pours the blood into the heart.
Capillaries:
The capillaries are the smallest blood vessels found everywhere in the
body. They are microscopic in vision. They are derived from multiple divisions of
arterioles. The valves of capillaries are made up of single cell. The blood flow very slow
in these vessels and exchange of gases as well as nutrient and waste product takes place
with the help of capillary by the process of diffusion or active transport. There are two
types of capillaries.
i. Porous
ii. Non porous
Porous: They possess pours in their structure via which exchange of gases and nutrients
takes place.
Non porous: They do not possess pours in their structure and found in brain and testes
leading to blood brain and blood barrier respectively.
BLOOD:
Blood is a special type of fluid in circulatory system and performs the
following vital functions.
1. Absorb the nutrients from small intestine and transport them to the organs of the
body.
2. Remove the waste products from the organs and transport them to the kidney.
3. Help to regulate the body temperature by dissipation of heat.
4. Regulate the water content of intracellular and extra cellular fluid.
5. Transport the gases as oxygen from lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from
tissues to the lungs with the help of plasma and hemoglobin.
6. Hormones secreted by endocrine glands are transported with the help of blood
towards target tissues.
Blood is 12% of body weight at 1st
week of age and decreases to 7.5 % at the age of 16
weeks and further decreases to 6.5 % at the age of 52 weeks. Blood is composed of two
components.
i. Plasma
ii. Blood cells
PLASMA:
It is the fluid portion of the blood and it contains about 90% water.
Remaining 90% portion of plasma is made up of mineral and biochemical product like
glucose, protein, albumin, globulin, cholesterol, LDL and HDL. It acts as a vehicle for
the cellular portion of blood as well as for other substances.
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TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS:
RED BLOOD CELLS/ ERYTHROCYTES/ RBCs:
The first kind of blood
cells is red blood cells or erythrocyte. Erythrocytes are oval shape and nucleated in case
of poultry. The erythrocytes utilize the energy or glucose by aerobic glycolysis instead of
anaerobic glycolysis as in case of mammals.
Functions of Erythrocytes:
1. They carry the heamoglobin.
2. They transport the oxygen and carbon dioxide to the body tissue and lungs
respectively.
3. The haemoglobin present in the erythrocytes also acts as a buffer because it is
protein in nature.
4. The erythrocytes help to wash the foreign antigen from the body.
5. They carry the receptors or antigens responsible for the presentation of blood
groups.
The size of erythrocytes is larger in birds as compared to the mammals. The mature
erythrocyte is 12.8μm long, 6.9μm wide and 3.6μm thick. The number of RBCs varies
with age as well as the gender of the bird. In adult males the number of RBCs is 3.8
million/mm3 while in adult female it is 3.0million per cubic mm.
Formation and destruction of RBCs:
The RBCs are derived the stem cells
of haemopoietic system present in the bone marrow of the bones. The developmental
stages of RBCs or erythrocytes are as follows.
1. Early erythroblasts
2. Late erythroblasts
3. Early polychromatic erythrocytes
4. Mid polychromatic erythrocytes
5. Late polychromatic erythrocytes
6. Reticulocytes
7. Mature erythrocytes
The mature RBCs are released in the blood stream while same proportions of cells are
also stored in the spleen which releases the cells under emergency conditions. The
average life span of the RBCs in is 28 days.
The RBCs are released from the bone marrow under the action of a hormone known as
erythropoietin which is released by the kidney.
After the completion of life cycle the RBCs undergo the process of lysis or destruction
resulting in the release of free haemoglobin. This haemoglobin is taken up by the
macrophages or monocytes. These cells break the haemoglobin into haem and globin.
Haem is then released into the circulation and taken up by the special type of protein
known as feratin. The protein transports the iron or haem to the bone marrow where it
helps to synthesize the new molecules of haemoglobin. The globin which is the protein
part of haemoglobin is processed by the macrophages resulting in the formation of
biliverdin. This by product is further processed leading the formation of bilirubin. The
bilirubin is then released into the circulation and taken up by the liver. From the liver it is
transported to the gall bladder and it is incorporated in the bile already present in the gall
bladder.
White Blood Cells/Leukocytes:
On the basis of granules the WBCs are classified as
i. Granulocytes
ii. Agranulocytes
GRANULOCYTES:
These cells possess granules in their cytoplasm so these are
known as granulocytes. These are as follows
i. Hetrophils
ii. Eosinophils
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iii. Basophils
HETROPHILS:
These cells are also designated as polymorphonuclear
pseudoeosinophils. While in case of mammals the cells are known as nuetrophils because
the granules present in the cytoplasm are bright reddish in colour. The granules present in
the Hetrophils contain the enzyme which is lethal for the bacteria, viruses, and other
microorganisms. Heterophils contain the following enzymes.
1) Hydrogen peroxidase
2) Collagiase
Hydrogen peroxidase is lethal for microorganism while collagenase help to enhance the
activity of heterophils . In addition to these enzymes heterophils also contain iron binding
protein known as lacto ferrin .
This protein binds the iron and thus inhibit the growth of microbes.
These cells are usually round in shape having a diameter of approximately 10-15 um.
The nucleus of the cell is the polymorphic in shape and contain lobules.
The heterophils are 27.8% of the total leukocytes.
These cells play a vital role in the early phase of the disease.
EOSINOPHIL: These cells are also known as polymorphonuclear eosinophil. The
granules present in the eosinophil are dull red in colour compared to bright red colour of
heteropils. The size of these cells is comparable to that of hetriphils and they are 1.5% of
total leukocytes. The granules present contain enzyme known as histaminases which
takes part in the activation of histamine which is the inflammatory mediator in allergic
reactions. The Eosinophils play a vital role in the development of immunity against the
parasitic diseases.
BASOPHILS:The basophils contain the granules which are dark blue in colour. The
granules contain histamine, serotonin, bradykinin, lysosomal enzymes. These substances
take part in the development of inflammation as well as immunity. These cells enhance
the allergic reaction. The size of the cell is equal to that of heterophils and they are 2.7%
of total leukocytes.
AGRANULOCYTES
Those cells which are devoid of granules are known as agranulocytes. Agranulocytes are
of two kinds which are as follows.
i. Lymphocytes
ii. Monocytes
LYMPHOCYTES:The lymphocytes constitute the majority of the leukocytes. They
are ⅔ of the total leukocytes in the population. Morphologically the lymphocytes are
classified as small and large lymphocytes. Large lymphocytes represent the immature
cells and contain more cytoplasm. While the small lymphocytes are mature cells and
contain scanty cytoplasm. The nucleus is round in the shape and has intendations. The
lymphocytes are involved in the new response and on the basis they are classified as.
i. T-lymphocytes
ii. B-lymphocytes
T-LYMPHOCYTES:T-lymphocytes are produced from the thymus gland and these
are involved in cell mediated immunity. In this type of immunity large numbers of t-
lymphocytes are produced in response to the infection which takes part in the clearance
of the infection.
There are three types of t-lymphocytes.
i. Cytotoxin t-cell
ii. T helper cells
iii. Memory t- cells
CYTOTOXIN T CELLS: These cells are also known as killer cells because these
cells are attached to the infection organism and produce the certain cytotoxic. These
substances are lethal for the infection organism which will lead to the destruction of
infectious organism.
T-HELPER CELLS: These are the most numerous of all t-lymphocytes. These cells
help in the activation of cytotoxic cells.
MEMORY T-CELLS: Memory cells are long lived and respond to the same
infectious microorganism. When the birds are exposed to the same microorganism later
in the form of cytotoxic t-cells.
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B-LYMPHOCYTES:
B-lymphocytes are produced in the bursa of fabrecius.
After the exposure to the antigen (any pathogenic nature material for body). The B-cells
are activated by the polyferate and change into the plasma cells and memory cells.
PLASMA CELLS: The plasma cells are responsible for formation of antibodies
against the antigen and thus they kill the antigen. The immunity produced by the B-
lymphocytes is known as humeral immunity.
B-MEMORY CELLS: The function of these cells is similar to that of T-cells. When
these cells are rexposed to the same antigen they are changed into plasma cells and
produce antibodies.
MONOCYTES:
Monocytes are the largest leukocytes. These cells have the ability
to engulf the bacteria, virus, and other antigen present in the blood. When these cells are
moved to the tissue they are known as macrophages. The macrophages in the liver are
known as kuffer cells, in the spleen known as splenic macrophages and in the lungs they
are known as alveolar macrophages.
THROMBOCYTES (PLATELESS):
These cells take part in the clotting
of blood and thus prevent the loss of blood from the injured site. These cells are derived
from the erythrocytes in which the process of haemoglobinization i.e. formation of
haemoglobin is failed.
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28
RENAL PHYSIOLOGY
COMPONENTS OF RENAL SYSTEM:
i. Paired kidney
ii. Ureters
iii. Cloaca/vent
FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEY:
i. To filter the blood and removal of waste products.
ii. Reabsorption of useful material such as electrolyte and excessive amount of
water.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AVIAN AND MAMMALIAN KIDNEY:
1. Two types of nephron (one is mammalian nephron and other is reptilian
nephron).
2. Renal portal system.
3. Uric acid (in mammals urine is made up of urea while in case of birds it is
composed of crystals of uric acid).
4. Post renal urine modification.
Anatomical feature of the kidney:
The avian kidneys are paired fitted closely the bony depression on the dorsal wall of the
pelvis. The each kidney is divided into three lobes.
i. Cranial lobe
ii. Middle lobe
iii. Caudal lobe
The each lobe is further subdivided into small lobules. The ureters originate from each
kidney and carry the urine from the kidneys to the cloaca. The kidney is made up of two
parts. The middle part is known as medulla while outer portion is known as cortex. The
basic functional and structural unit of kidney is known as nephron which is made up of
different components.
NEPHRON STRUCTURE:
Nephron is made up of following parts.
i. Glomerulus
ii. Bowwmann’s capsule
iii. Proximal convoluted tubules
iv. Loop of henle
v. Distal convoluted tubule
vi. Collecting duct
vii. Vasa recta
The tuft of capillaries is known as glumerulus which is encapsulated or enclosed by
glomerulus capsule also known as bowmann’s capsule.
The blood is filtered by the glomerulus and the filtrate is taken up by the bowmann’s
capsule. The filtrate is made up of waste products as well as the useful products such as
water and electrolyte. The filtrate from the bowmann’s capsule is passed down to the
proximal convoluted tubules, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule and then ultimately
to the collecting ducts while passing through the tubular portion of the nephron the useful
substances from the filtrate are taken up by the network of capillaries which surrounds
the nephron. The network of capillaries is known as vasa recta.
TYPES OF NEPHRONS:
The avian kidneys are characterized by the presence
of two kinds of nephrons.
i. Reptilian nephron
ii. Mammalian nephron
In case of reptilian nephron the loop of henle is absent due to which less quantity of water
is reabsorbed by the nephron and thus they failed to concentrate the urine. These
nephrons are located in the cortex of the kidney. In contrast to reptilian nephron, the
mammalian nephron is capable of concentrating the urine because they possess the loop
of henle. These nephrons are located in the medulla of the kidney.
Depending upon the need of water conservation the avian kidneys can alternatively use
the reptilian and mammalian type nephrons according to the demand of water. When both
are functional 25% filtrate comes from mammalian type while 75% comes from reptilian
nephrons.
RENAL PORTAL SYSTEM:
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29
The unique feature of avian kidney is the
presence of renal portal system which carries the inner portal blood to the kidney. The
renal portal blood is the veinous blood that comes to the kidney from hind limbs, through
the external iliac and sciatic vein. The renal portal system supplies 12 to 23 of the blood
to the kidney.
PRESENCE OF URIC ACID:
The urine of birds is made up of uric acid
instead of urea which is the metabolic products of proteins and amino acids. It is the least
toxic protein by product which can be excreted with minute quantities of water. The uric
acid is formed in the liver as well as the kidneys of the birds from ammonia, which is the
most toxic protein metabolic by product.
POST RENAL URINE MODIFICATION:
After the presentation of urine to cloaca their might be retrograte flow or backward flow
of urine into the colon. In the colon reabsorption of excessive amount of water as well as
sodium ion takes place.
HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR URINE FORMATION:
There are three hormones which take part in the formation of urine.
i. Angiotensin ‫׀׀‬
ii. Aldosterone
iii. ANP (arterial natriuretic peptide)
Angiotensin ‫׀׀‬ hormone is responsible for natriuresis and diuresis along with
antinatriuresis and antidiuresis according to the need of water conservation.
Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium in
the filtrate.
ANP is released from the atrium of heart and is responsible for natriuresis as well as
diuresis in case of birds.
MECHANISM OF URINE FORMATION:
Ultra filtration: It is a process which takes place under the pressure and results in the
filtration of blood, within the glomerulus.
Active Tubular Reabsorption: This process is characterized by the active reabsorption of
useful substances from the filtrate in the tubular portion of the nephron.
Excretion: The process of excretion involves the removal of uric acid from the body of
bird.
REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY
Male Reproductive Physiology: The reproductive organs are made up of primary
and secondaryaccessory reproductive organs.
Primary Reproductive Organs:
Like that of mammals the primary
reproductive organs are testes in the birds and located within the body cavity of the birds
which is in contrast with those of mammals. In this position or location they are able to
function at higher body temperature of birds. The internal structure of testes is made up
of seminiferous tubules, sertoli cells and lay dig cells. The seminiferous tubules are lined
with a special type of cells which are responsible for spermatogenesis. It is a process in
which the immature cells i.e. spermatocytes is developed to the mature cells known as
spermatozoa or sperm cells. These are haploid cells. The sertoli cells are responsible for
the nourishment of spermatocytes and spermatozoa. While on the other hand lay dig cells
are responsible for the formation of male hormone or androgenic hormone known as
testosterone. Thus they play a vital role in the synthesis of androgenic hormone as well as
formation of spermatozoa.
SecondaryAccessory Reproductive Organs:
i. Vas efferentia
ii. Short epididymal duct
iii. Vasa deferntia
iv. Ejaculatory duct
v. Phallus
The secondary reproductive organs are made up of tubular structure which is responsible
for the transportation of sperm from testes to the exterior of the body. The sperms are
stored in the terminal portion of the Vasa deferntia which becomes enlarge due to storage
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30
of semen.
Semen:
This is a fluid like secretion of which is composed of two portions.
i. Cellular portion
ii. Fluid portion
The cellular portion of the semen is made up of sperm cells while the fluid portion is
made up of seminal plasma which is derived from the seminiferous tubule as well as vasa
efferentia. The seminal plasma is responsible for nourishment of stored sperms as well as
it provides transportation medium for the sperms. The average volume of semen which is
ejaculated at a time is about 0.5 ml and it contains 4 billions sperms per ml of the semen.
At the time mating semen is released into the ejaculatory groove and with the help of
phallus it is ejaculated outside the body.
Hormonal Control of Male Reproductive System:
Like other system male reproductive system is also influenced by the hormonal system.
The pituitary hormone is responsible for controlling the activity of primary reproductive
organs. These hormones are LH (luteinizing hormone) FSH (follicle stimulating
hormone).
The LH acts on the leydig cells to promote their development and testosterone
production while on the other hand FSH acts on the sertoli cells as well as cells of the
seminiferous tubules thus promote the formation of spermatozoa or sperms.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM & EGG FORMATION:
The female reproductive system is made up of primary reproductive organs as well as the
secondary reproductive organs. Primary reproductive organs include the ovary while the
secondary reproductive organs include the oviduct. At the time of maturity only the left
ovary as well as the oviduct is developed and become functional while the right ovary
and oviduct are regressed.
Ovary is responsible for the formation of ovum which is analogous to sperm cells in
female.
OVIDUCT:
The oviduct is a long convoluted duct or tube through which the
ovum is moved and where the albumin, shell membrane and shell formation takes place.
The oviduct consists of five different parts and its length is variable from 70-80cm and it
also depends upon the size of the bird. The part of the oviduct is as follows.
a) Infundibulum
b) Magnum
c) Isthmus
d) Uterus
e) Vagina
Infundibulum: Infundibulum is a funnel shaped structure and approximately 9cm in
length in the laying hen. This portion is responsible for the engulfment of the ovum at the
time of ovulation. The developing ovum is mature within 9-10days. During this growth
period the yolk material is laid down in the form of concentric rings around the ovum. At
the completion of maturity, the ovum along with yolk is released from the ovary and this
phenomenon is known as ovulation. It is also acting as a site for the fertilization of ovum.
The egg or ovum is remained in this portion for 15minutes.
Magnum: The ovum then passes to the next portion of the oviduct known as
magnum. It is the largest portion of the oviduct which measures approximately 33 cm. It
is a site for the formation of egg protein which is known as albumen. The albumen is
made up of different types of proteins such as mucin, globulin and albumin. There are no
distinct layers of albumin in the laid egg. It takes 3 hours for the formation of albumen.
Chalaziferous layer: which is attached to the yolk and it is 2.7% of the total albumen.
Inner liquid layer: It is 16.8% of the total albumen.
Dense thick layer: It is 50% of the total albumen.
Outer thin layer/ Fluid layer: The rest of albumen is found in this portion.
The inner layer of the albumen leads to the formation of extensions which are attached
with the shell membrane. These extensions are known as chaliza. It is responsible for
binding the yolk as well as developing embryo in the centre of the egg so that the
divisions of the embryo so that developing embryo should not be adhere to shell
membrane. The yolk is deposited around the ovum in the ovary via blood deposition of
yolk into the ovum terminals about 24 hours before ovulation. Egg yolk is a complex
mixture of water, lipid, protein and other components which are present in small amounts
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31
such as vitamins and minerals. The yolk is the only source of nutrition for the
development of embryo.
Isthmus: The movement of the magnum forces the ovum into the isthmus. This
region is approximately 9 cm in length and the line of demarcation between the isthmus
and magnum is very clear or distinct. The folds present in this region are less and small in
size. This region is responsible for the formation of shell membrane as well as it also
incorporate small amount of water to the egg albumin. The shell membrane formed in
this region are paired and these are known as inner shell membrane and outer shell
membrane and these membranes are made up of a network of protein fibers and keratin.
The egg remains in this portion for about one and half hour. The shell membranes are
attached to the shell except at the broader end of the egg where this separate to form air
space.
Uterus (Shell Gland): The uterus is the pouch like portion of the oviduct and is
about 10-12 cm in length in the laying hen. The walls of the uterus are thick and muscular
and they contain specific gland known as shell gland which is responsible for the
formation of the shell of the egg. In addition to shell formation the uterus is also
responsible for production of fluid known as uterine fluid which is incorporated into the
albumin via shell membranes. Similarly it also produces the shell pigment if they are
present. The egg remains in this portion for 20 hours. During this period of formation of
egg shell takes place which is mainly made up of calcium carbonate, phosphorus,
magnesium and small amounts of sodium and potassium. The calcium and phosphorus
are derived from the mobilization of these minerals from the bones.
Vagina: This portion is isolated from the uterus by uterovaginal sphincter and it is
about 12 cm in length. The egg remains in this portion for about 1 minute and then egg is
expelled out of the body through vent. This structure is responsible for the transport of
egg outside of the body as well as storage of the sperm cells in sperm host glands.
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NEUROMUSCULAR PHYSIOLOGY
NERVOUS PHYSIOLOGY:
The basic functional as well as structural unit of the
nervous system is known as neuron and it is made up of different parts which are as
follows.
a) Cell body
b) Dendrites
c) Axon
The cell body is made up of nucleus and containing cytoplasm in which different cellular
organelles are present as mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi apparatus etc. dendrites and the
axons are the extensions of the cell body. The dendrites are the processes or extensions
which conduct the impulse or signals towards another neuron. Axon is a process which
conducts the impulses from the cell body. The axon is also known as nerve fiber and it
might be covered or uncovered with a membrane known as myelin sheath. The axon is
also surrounded by specialized cells known as schwann cells in the peripheral nervous
system while oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system. Both type of cells are
responsible for the production of myelin sheath around the axon which acts as insulating
membrane or sheath. These cells as well as the myelin sheath are interrupted along the
length of the axon and these interrupted areas are known as node of ranvier. It is a site for
the exchange of ions across the axon and extracellular fluid. On the basis of polarity of
neuron (number of processes or extensions extended from the neuron or cell body) these
can be classified into three different types which are as follows.
a. Bipolar neurons
b. Pseudounipolar neurons
c. Multipolar neurons.
Bipolar neurons: The neuron which possesses single axon and single dendritic
process are known as bipolar neuron.
Pseudounipolar neurons: The neuron which contains a single axon and a single
dendritic process which are fused together before entering the cell body giving the
appearance of one process is known as pseudounipolar neuron.
Multipolar neurons: The neuron which possesses branching dendrites or
multiple numbers of dendrites and a single axon is known as multipolar neuron. It is the
most numerous type of neuron present in the central nervous system.
Synapse: The junction between two neurons is known as synapse. There is no
physical contact of the neurons at the synapse rather a space exists between the neurons
which is known as synaptic gutter/gap and the impulses from one to another neuron via
synaptic gutter takes place with the help of chemical substances which are known as
neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
CLASSIFICATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is classified as central nervous system and peripheral nervous
system. The central nervous system is made up of brain and spinal cord while the
peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves originating from brain and spinal cord
and these are known as cranial nerves and spinal nerves respectively.
Nerves are parallel arrangement of the axons outside of the central nervous while inside
the central nervous system it is known as tract/fasicles. There is another classification of
the nervous system which is based upon the activity of the nervous system. According to
the activity of the nervous system can be classified as autonomic nervous system and
somatic nervous system.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The autonomic nervous system is a part of peripheral nervous system, which controls the
involuntary nervous activity of the body such as the activities of the gastrointestinal tract,
reproductive system, urinary system activities of glands etc. The autonomic nervous
system is further divided into two parts.
a. Parasympathetic nervous system
b. Sympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system causes the activities of gastrointestinal tract that
means it increases the motility of as well as secretion of the gastrointestinal tract. In
contrast to this system the sympathetic nervous system inactivates or decreases the
motility of the as well as the secretion of the gastrointestinal tract. The neurotransmitter
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of the peripheral nervous system is known as acetylcholine while that of sympathetic
nervous system the neurotransmitters are known as epinephrine, which is also known as
adrenaline and norepinephrine, which is also known as noradrenaline.
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
It is also the part of the peripheral nervous system and it controls the voluntary activity of
the body such as the movement of skeletal muscles.
NERVE IMPULSE AND ITS TRANSMISSION
Nerve Impulse: It is a transmission of the signals or information in the form of
electrical charges along the length of the nerve fiber from one neuron to another neuron
or from neuron to the effecter organ or from effecter organ to the neuron.
Transmission of Impulse:Under normal or resting condition the net charges outside
membrane is positive as compared to inside the membrane so the resulting net charges
inside the membrane will be negative. The positive charge outside the membrane is due
to the excessive amount of Na+
while the negative charge inside membrane is due to the
excessive amount of K+
ions. This type of charging is known as resting membrane
potential. Any type of alteration in the charges will lead to the development of action
membrane potential, which results in the propagation of nerve impulse. The disturbance
in the charges inside and outside the membrane is called the action membrane potential.
The action membrane potential or nerve impulse can be generated in response to
electrical stimuli, chemical, thermal, and mechanical stimuli.
MUSCULAR PHYSIOLOGY
The body of the animals as well as human being is made up of two types of muscles,
which are known as voluntary muscles and involuntary muscles according to the activity.
The voluntary muscles include skeletal muscles while involuntary muscles include
cardiac and smooth muscles.
SKELETAL MUSCLES: The skeletal muscles are classified into three types.
a. Red/dark skeletal muscles
b. White skeletal muscles
c. Intermediate colors skeletal muscles
The skeletal muscles are responsible for controlling the voluntary movement of the body.
These are also known as striated muscles because they contain striations. The functional
unit of skeletal muscle is two proteins that are known as actin filament and myosin
filament.
SMOOTH MUSCLES: The smooth muscles are involuntary muscles present in the
gastrointestinal tract, blood vascular system etc. These muscles do not contain visible
striations so they are known as non striated muscles.
CARDIAC MUSCLES: The muscles of heart are known as cardiac muscles and
these are also known as involuntary in nature. These are similar to that of skeletal
muscles but the additional feature of the cardiac muscles is the presence of intercalated
disc.
NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
It is a junction which is present between the nerve fiber and muscle fiber functionally as
well as morphologically neuromuscular junction is similar to that of synapse. The
neurotransmitter in this junction is acetylcholine. The information from the nerve fiber is
transmitted via neuromuscular junction, which ultimately lead to the development of
action membrane potential in the muscle fiber.
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