4. University of
Alexandria
Definition
Hemorrhage in the gastrointestinal tract
above the ligament of Treitz, which connects
the fourth portion of the duodenum to
the diaphragm near the splenic flexure of the
colon.
9. University of
Alexandria
Etiology acc. To incidence in Egypt
– Ruputre oesophageal varice
– Erosions,
– Duodenal ulcer,
– Cancer stomach,
– Gastric ulcer
– Mallory-Weiss syndrome
– Reflux oesophagitis
10. University of
Alexandria
Gatroesophageal Varices
In the lower 3-5 cm of the oesophagus..WHY??
Squeal of portal hypertension.
Portosystemic shunt (Lt gastric v.& oesophageal vessels)
Incidence
– 20-30%-------Mortality in each attack
– 60-70%-------Rebleed within 1 yr if untreated
– 75% -----------Bleeding ceases spontaneously
11. University of
Alexandria
•Cirrhotic liver
•Esophagoscopic
view (at cardia)
•Azygos vein
•Diaphragm
•Esophageal branches of left
gastric vein
•Short gastric vein
•Suprahepathic vein
•Inferior vena cava
•Superior vena cava •Azygos vein
•Esophagus
•Esophageal
varices
•Volume
increased splein
•Gastric
veins
•Splenic vein
•Portal vein
pressure
increases up to
20-30 mmHg
12. University of
Alexandria
Isolated Gastric Varices
Isolated gastric varices are those that occur
in the absence of esophageal varices and are
classified as
– type 1 (fundic)
– type 2 (distal to fundus
including proximal duodenum).
14. University of
Alexandria
Bleeding peptic ulcer
Approximately 20% of patients with peptic
ulcer will bleed.
Bleeding duodenal ulcer: 10 times more
common than bleeding gastric ulcer
Post. ulcer erodes the gastroduodenal artery,
ant. ulcer → no severe bleeding.
90% of patients stop bleeding within 8 h of
admission.
15. University of
Alexandria
Beheviour of PU Bleeding
Spontaneous stoping: 70-80 %
Probability of rebleeding: 30-50 %
Mortality among patients operated
because of rebleeding: 20-30 %
16. University of
Alexandria
Acute erosive gastritis
Diffuse superficial mucosal lesion in body
and fundus may duodenum.
– NSAID
– Alcohol
– Drugs
– Gastric irradiation
– Stressful situation
18. University of
Alexandria
Mallory-Weiss tear
The lesion is a longitudinal tear in the mucosa
of the GE junction.
Transient increase in P. gradient between the
intrathoracic and intragastric portion of GOJ.
It is presumably caused by forceful vomiting
and/or retching, and is commonly seen in
alcoholics.
Endoscopy is diagnostic and theraputic---90%
19. University of
Alexandria
Dieulafoy's lesion
congenital arteriovenous malformation
characterized by an unusually large
tortuous submucosal artery.
It causes massive recurrent bleeding with
no prodromal symptoms
21. University of
Alexandria
Portal hypertensive gastropathy
changes in the mucosa of the stomach in
patients with portal hypertension
These changes in the mucosa include friability
of the mucosa and the presence of dilated
blood vessels at the surface.
22. University of
Alexandria
Hypertrophic Gastropathy
(Ménétrier's Disease)
Clinical syndromes characterized by
epithelial hyperplasia and giant gastric folds
There are large rugal folds in the proximal
stomach, and the antrum is usually spared.
Characteristically associated with protein-
losing gastropathy and hypochlorhydria
25. University of
Alexandria
History
Melena, hematemsis, hematochizia according
to the amount of bleeding
• Melena:
Liquid, jet black or black with reddish tinge
pungent characteristic smell quite unlike smell
of faeces.
• Dark formed stools → insignificant.
• Iron therapy → sticky faeces with dark grey
rather than black.
• Melena:
Liquid, jet black or black with reddish tinge
pungent characteristic smell quite unlike smell
of faeces.
• Dark formed stools → insignificant.
• Iron therapy → sticky faeces with dark grey
rather than black.
26. University of
Alexandria
History
Symptoms of anemia;
– Syncope, fatigue, dyspnea, chest pain
History of
– liver disease or bilhariziasis
– Alcohol intake
– bleeding tendency or anticoagulant intake
– analgesic abuse
– Past gastric surgeries
27. University of
Alexandria
Examination
Hemodynamic stability
– Tachycardia, thready pulse
– Hypotension
Careful abdominal examination
– Bowel sounds
– Abdominal tenderness
– Ascites—shifting dullness
Signs of chronic liver disease or portal hypertension
– Hepatomegaly, Splenomegaly, ictrus
28. University of
Alexandria
Shock assessment
Estimated Fluid and Blood Losses in Shock
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
Blood Loss,
mL
Up to 750 750-1500 1500-2000 >2000
Blood Loss,%
blood volume
Up to 15% 15-30% 30-40% >40%
Pulse Rate,
bpm
<100 >100 >120 >140
Blood
Pressure
Normal Normal Decreased Decreased
Respiratory
Rate
Normal or
Increased
Decreased Decreased Decreased
Urine
Output,
mL/h
14-20 20-30 30-40 >35
CNS/Mental
Status
Slightly
anxious
Mildly
anxious
Anxious,
confused
Confused,
lethargic
Fluid
Replacement,
3-for-1 rule
Crystalloid Crystalloid
Crystalloid
and blood
Crystalloid
and blood
31. University of
Alexandria
Endoscopy
Endoscopy identifies the site of bleeding in
about 90% of patients with upper GI bleeding
The ideal time to perform this examination is
– when the patient is hemodynamically stable, and
– when the nasogastric aspirate following irrigation is
clear.
33. University of
Alexandria
Endoscopic Clues for Risk of
Rebleeding in PU
1. Visible vessel (blue or red).
– Protruding lesion with ulcer base
1. Spurter (arterial).
2. Black or red spot.
3. Overlying clot.
•50%
rebleeding
•10%
rebleeding
43. University of
Alexandria
Resuscitation
ICU admition
Large-bore IV access, Foley
catheterization, and nasogastric intubation
IV fluid replacement
Blood transfusion
– Till Hemoglobin------8g/dl
Fresh frozen plasma & platelet transfusion
44. University of
Alexandria
Role of nasogastric tube
Confirms a UGIB.
Activity of gross bleeding
– Red blood suggests currently active bleeding
– coffee grounds suggest recently active bleeding.
– Continued aspiration of red blood suggests
severe, active hemorrhage.
NGT clears the gastric field for endoscopic
visualization, and to prevent aspiration of
gastric content
45. University of
Alexandria
Activity of bleeding
Grossly bloody haematemsis or large fresh
clots per rectum.
Active bleeding 2 to 3 fold mortality.
NG aspirate may be negative in 10% of
bleeding D.U. due to edema or pylorospasm
The sensitivity of NG aspirate of assessing
active bleeding is 79%
Cuellar et al. Arch Intern Med 1990; 323: 1381-84.
46. University of
Alexandria
Rebleeding
Recurrence of haematemsis or bleeding in
nasogastric tube,
Recurrence of melena or haematochezia
coupled with instable vital signs:
Systolic <90 mmHg, HR >110 beats/min.
Decrease in hematocrit of >4% in 24 hours.
Acta Medica Medianae 2007,Vol.46
47. University of
Alexandria
Role of nasogastric tube
However, lavage may not be positive if
bleeding has ceased or arises beyond a closed
pylorus. The presence of bilious fluid
suggests that the pylorus is open and, if
lavage is negative, that there is no active
upper GI bleeding distal to the pylorus
48. University of
Alexandria
Blood transfusion
High-risk patients should receive packed red
blood cell transfusions to maintain the
hematocrit above 30 percent.eg,
– Elderly
– severe comorbid illnesses such as coronary disease
or cirrhosis
Young and otherwise healthy patients should
be transfused to maintain their hematocrit
above 20 percent.
49. University of
Alexandria
Blood transfusion
Patients who have variceal bleeding are
conservatively transfused to a hematocrit of only
27 to avoid exacerbating the bleeding by
increasing the portal pressure, with
transfusion only for shock or a hemoglobin less
than 8mg/dl.
50. University of
Alexandria
Oesophageal varices
Measures to avoid hepatic enephalopathy
– Gastric lavage
– Lactulose enema
– Oral Neomycin
– Antibiotic administration
– Avoid hypoglycemia
– Avoid Na containing fluids
51. University of
Alexandria
Oesophageal varices
Pharmacologic therapy
– Vasopressin, Glypressin (50% Control)
IV at a dose of 0.2 to 0.8 units/min
Side effect???
– Somatostatin and its analogue octreotide (of choice)
initial bolus of 50 µg IV followed by continuous infusion of
50 µg/h (65% Control)
cause splanchnic vasoconstriction
can be administered for 5 days or longer
– Vit. K administration (parentral)
52. University of
Alexandria
Oesophageal varices
Balloon tamponade using
a Sengstaken-Blakemore
tube
– will control refractory
variceal bleeding in >80%
of patients
– SE ????
– should be limited to short-
term therapy (<24 hours)
53. University of
Alexandria
Endoscopy
EGD should be carried out as soon as possible
and EVL should be performed
Injection sclerotherspy using ethanolamine (80-
90% Control)
– Gastric varices injection with N-butyl-cyanoacrylate
Sclerotherapy Band ligation
Minor chest pain, fever No resternal pain
Chest complication Superficial ulcers
Oesophageal ulcer G. varices
Stricture Equal efficacy
56. University of
Alexandria
Transjugular Intrahepatic
Portosystemic Shunt
In Child-Pugh B&C
control variceal bleeding in >90% of cases
refractory to medical treatment
Disadvantages
– bleeding,
– infections,
– renal failure,
– decreased hepatic function, and hepatic
encephalopathy
58. University of
Alexandria
Prevention of variceal rebleeding
EVL
– 1-2wks till varices disappear
– Then every 6 mon to detect recurrence
Propranolol
– 20% efficacy
60. University of
Alexandria
Bleeding peptic ulcer
Medical
– PPI (80mg IV bolus, then 8mg/hr infusion)
– H2 blockers
– Antacid
– Sucralfat
– Bismuth
Endoscopic
– Injection of adrenaline, electrocautary
Surgical
67. University of
Alexandria
Indications of surgery
Massive bleeding requiring >10 units.
Rebleeding after cessation → Early
surgery Death rate >30%.
Visible bleeding vessel on endoscopy →
50% rebleeding.
70. University of
Alexandria
Surgery
The use of a definitive ulcer curing operation
is mandatory in patients with hemorrhage
but optional in patients with perforation.
– The rebleeding rate is very high in local surgery
only, 70-80 %,
– Recurrent bleeding in both → 13%
75. University of
Alexandria
Acute erosive gastritis
Treatment options
Near total gastrotomy + Roux en Y.
Ligation of all blood vessels to the stomach.
Vagotomy & pyloroplasty.
Conserve until transfusion requirement are 12 units or more.
50% mortality with surgery
77. University of
Alexandria
Indications of surgery in UG bleeding
Hemodynamic instability despite vigorous
resuscitation (>6 units transfusion)
Failure of endoscopic techniques to arrest
hemorrhage
Recurrent hemorrhage after initial stabilization (with
up to two attempts at obtaining endoscopic
hemostasis)
Shock associated with recurrent hemorrhage
Continued slow bleeding with a transfusion
requirement exceeding 4 units/day