Sociology Super-Notes >> Class XI - Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and Their Use in Sociology

Sociology Super-Notes
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Terms, Concepts
and their use in Sociology
M S Ahluwalia

Introducing Sociology

Copyright © 2020, by M S Ahluwalia
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Contents
Contents
1. Why does Sociology need a special set of terms?
2. Social Collectivities, their nature and types
3. Groups
4. Social Stratification
5. Status, Role and Prestige
6. Social Control

We are so well acquainted with the social
institutions that surround us that we
cannot see them clearly and precisely
Peter L. Berger

Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Why the terms
Concepts are not fixed frozen entities. They often change with time.
Shared
Understanding
• The colloquial
meaning of words
is often unclear and
imprecise making it
difficult to use them
technically.
• A clear meaning
has to be assigned
to the terms for
scientific use.
Background
• Terms and
concepts tell us the
‘story’ of their
development, and
so, of the field, in a
concise way
Tools
• Terms and
concepts are the
tools that help us
understand reality,
for sociologists
society is the
reality.

Contents
3. Groups
6. Social Control

Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Social Collectivities
2. Social Collectivities, and their nature
• A defining feature of human life is that humans interact,
communicate and construct social collectivities.
• If we look at comparative studies and history, it is clear that:
1. Human Groups and Collectivities exist in every society irrespective
of the period and region to which they belong
2. Types of groups and collectivities are different in different
societies

Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Types of Collectivities
2.1. Types of Collectivities
Aggregate
• A collection of people who are in
the same place at the same
time. They share no definite
connection with one another.
Quasi Group
• An aggregate or combination,
which lacks structure or
organisation, and whose
members may be unaware/less
aware, of the existence of
groupings.
• Ex: social classes, status, age
and gender groups.
• Quasi groups may become
social groups in time and in
specific circumstances. They
may be infused with a sense of
“we” feeling. Example: people of
‘India’ developed an identity as
a collective group over the
course of its freedom struggle,
due to their shared destiny.
Social Group
• A collection of continuously
interacting persons within a
given society, with common
interest, culture, values and
norms.
• Characteristics
• Persistent interaction to
provide continuity
• A stable pattern of these
interactions
• Members identify with other
members – he/she is
conscious of the group itself
and its own set of rules, rituals
and symbols
• Shared interest
• Acceptance of common norms
and values
• A defined social structure -
pattern of regular and
repetitive interactions between
individuals or groups.

Contents
3. Groups
6. Social Control

3. Terms and Concepts in Sociology
Sociology
Groups
Primary vs.
Secondary
Community vs.
Society
In-Groups vs.
Out-Groups
Reference
Group
Peer Groups
Social
Stratification
Caste
Class
Status and Role
Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Classification of Social Groups
Types of Groups
Sociologists and social
anthropologists have
categorised groups usually
by contrasting the manner
in which people form groups
in traditional and small scale
societies to that of modern
and large scale societies.
They were influenced by the
difference between close,
intimate, face-to-face
interaction in traditional
societies and impersonal,
detached, distant interaction
in modern societies

3.1. Primary vs. Secondary Social Groups
The categorisation of groups based on their importance to
the individual. Some groups tend to influence many aspects
of our lives and bring us into personal association with others.
Primary Group
• A small group of people
• Intimate and face-to-face
association and co-operation.
• Person-oriented
• Members of primary groups
have a sense of belonging.
• Ex: family, village and groups
of friends.
Secondary Groups
• Relatively large in size
• Maintain formal and
impersonal relationships
• Goal-oriented
• Ex: schools, offices, hospitals,
students’ associations etc.

3.2. Community vs. Society/Association
• Categorisation of groups by comparing the old traditional and
agrarian way of life with the new modern and urban one in terms of
their different and contrasting social relationships and lifestyles
• This approach dates back to writings of classical sociologists.
‘Community’
• Refers to human relationships that
are highly personal, intimate and
enduring, those where a person’s
involvement is considerable if not
total, as in the family, with real
friends or a close-knit group.
‘Society’ or ‘Association’
• Refers to everything opposite of
‘community’, in particular the
apparently impersonal, superficial
and transitory relationships of
modern urban life.
• We make contracts or agreements
rather than getting to know one
another.
• Commerce and industry require a
more calculating, rational and self-
interesting approach to one’s
dealings with others.

3.3. In-Groups vs. Out-Groups
Ingroup
• Marked by a sense of
belonging.
• This feeling separates ‘us’ or
‘we’ from ‘them’ or ‘they’.
• Ex: Children belonging to a
particular school may form an
‘in-group’ as against those
who do not belong to the
school.
Out-group
• One to which the members of
an ingroup do not belong.
• The members of an out-group
can face hostile reactions
from the members of the in-
group.
• Ex: Migrants

3.4. Reference Groups and Peer Groups
• The groups an individual may look up to, and
aspire to be like, and whose lifestyles he/she
emulates
• We do not belong to our reference groups, but
we identify ourselves with that group
• They are important sources of information
about culture, lifestyle, aspiration and goal
attainments.
Reference Groups
• They are a kind of primary group, usually
formed between individuals who are either of
similar age or who are in a common
professional group
• Peer pressure refers to the social pressure
exerted by one’s peers regarding what one
ought to do or not.
Peer Groups

Contents
3. Groups
6. Social Control

Sociology
Groups
Primary vs.
Secondary
Community vs.
Society
In-Groups vs.
Out-Groups
Reference
Group
Peer Groups
Social
Stratification
Caste
Class
Estate
Slavery
Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Social Stratification
Social Stratification
• It refers to the existence of
structural inequalities between
different groups of people in
society, in terms of their access to
material or symbolic rewards.
• Inequality of power and
advantage is central for
sociology, because of its crucial
place in the organisation of
society
• Opportunities for health, longevity,
security, educational success,
fulfilment in work and political
influence are all unequally
distributed in systematic ways.
• Historically four basic systems of
stratification have existed in
human societies: caste, class,
estate, and slavery.

4.1. Caste
• In a caste stratification system an individual’s position totally
depends on the status attributes ascribed by birth rather than on
life achievements.
• In traditional India, different castes formed a hierarchy of social
precedence. Each position in the caste structure was defined in terms
of its purity or pollution relative to others.
• The traditional system is generally conceptualised in terms of the
four fold varna of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. In
reality there are innumerable occupation-based caste groups,
called jatis.
• With the advent of modern society and democracy in India things
are changing, practices such as endogamy and ritual avoidance of
contact have seen a gradual decline forced by the new realities,
however, the discrimination continues to persist.

4.2. Class
• Marxist Theory
− Social classes are defined by their relation to the means of production.
− Are the groups owners of means of production such as land or factories, or do
they own nothing but their labour?
• Weber
− Life-chances: refers to the rewards and advantages afforded by market capacity.
− Inequality, might be based on economic relations. But, it could also be based on
prestige or on political power.
• Functionalist Theory
− General presupposition of functionalism - no society is “classless” or unstratified
− Social inequality or stratification is an unconsciously evolved device by which
societies ensure that the most important positions are deliberately filled by the
most qualified persons
• Compared to the caste system, the modern class system is open and
achievement-based.

Contents
3. Groups
6. Social Control

Sociology
Status
Status set
Status sequence
Ascribed vs.
Achieved status
Role
Role-taking
Role-playing
Role Conflict
Role
Stereotyping
Prestige
Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Status and Role
Status vs. Role
• A status is simply a position in
society or in a group.
• Every society and every group
has many such positions and
every individual occupies many
such positions.
• Status is thus a social position
with defined rights and duties
assigned to these positions.
• Status has many norms of
conduct as well as certain
responsibilities and prerogatives.
• Role is the behavioural or
dynamic aspect of status.
Status is occupied, roles are
played.
• A status is an institutionalised
role – one that is regularised,
standardised and formalised in
the society at large or in any of
the specific associations of
society.

5.1. Status
Status Set • Multiple statuses occupied by an individual in a modern society
• Ex: a son to a father, is a customer to a seller, a passenger to a cab driver, a patient to a
doctor, a brother to a sister
Status
Sequence
• Individuals attain different status in succession or sequence at various stages of life.
• Ex: a son today, becomes a father tomorrow, and grandfather after that.
Prestige • Every status is accorded certain rights and values. Values are attached to the social
position, rather than to the person who occupies it or to his/her performance or to
his/her actions.
• The kind of value attached to the status or to the office is called prestige.
• Ideas of what occupation is prestigious varies across societies and across periods
Ascribed Status
• a social position, which a person occupies
because of birth, or assumes involuntarily
• bases for the status are age, caste, race,
kinship etc.
• Simple and traditional societies are marked
by ascribed status.
Achieved Status
• a social position which a person occupies
voluntarily by personal ability,
achievements, virtues and choices.
• bases for the status are educational
qualifications, income, professional expertise
etc.

5.2. Role
Role taking
and
Role playing
• People perform their roles according to social expectations, i.e. role taking and role
playing.
• A child learns to behave according to how her behaviour is seen and judged by others.
Role Conflict • Role conflict is the incompatibility among roles corresponding to one or more status.
• It occurs when contrary expectations arise from two or more roles.
• Ex: a woman’s role as a mother vs. her role as a professional
Role
Stereotyping
• a process of reinforcing some specific role for some member of the society
• Ex: gender-based roles
Socialisation
and Roles
• Social roles and status are often wrongly seen as fixed and unchanging. It is felt that
individuals learn the expectations that surround social positions in their particular culture
and perform these roles largely as they have been defined.
• Through socialisation, individuals internalise social roles and learn how to carry them out.
This view, however, is mistaken. It suggests that individuals simply take on roles, rather
than creating or negotiating them.
• Socialisation is the process through which humans exercise agency - they are not
simply passive subjects waiting to be instructed or programmed. Individuals come to
understand and assume social roles through an ongoing process of social interaction.

Contents
3. Groups
6. Social Control

Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Social Control
6. Social Control
Social
Control
The social process that leverages various means - techniques and
strategies, to regulate the behaviours of recalcitrant or unruly individuals
or groups
Functional Perspective
• Social control refers to:
1. the use of force to regulate the
behaviour of the individual and groups
and
2.enforcing of values and patterns for
maintaining order in society.
• Social control here is directed to:
1. restrain deviant behaviour of individuals
or groups, and
2. mitigate tensions and conflicts among
individuals and groups to maintain
social order and social cohesion.
• Social control, is therefore, seen as
necessary to stability in society.
Conflict Theorists’ Perspective
• Social control is a mechanism to impose
the social control of dominant social
classes on the rest of society.
• Stability is seen as the writ of one section
over the other
• Law is seen as the formal writ of the
powerful and their interests on society.

6.1. Formal vs. Informal Social Control
Formal Social Control
• Codified, systematic, and
other formal mechanism of
control
• There are agencies and
mechanisms of formal social
control, such as law and the
state.
• In a modern society, formal
mechanisms and agencies of
social control are emphasised.
Informal Social Control
• Personal, unofficial and
uncodified.
• Methods of informal social
control include smiles, making
faces, body language, frowns,
criticism, ridicule, laughter etc.
Their use can vary even within
the same society.
• In day to day life they are
quite effective.
• Agencies of informal social
control include family, religion,
kinship, etc.

6.2. Sanction and Deviance
Deviance • Modes of action which do not conform to the norms or
values held by most of the members of a group or
society.
• What is regarded as ‘deviant’ is as widely varies according
to the norms and values prevalent in the specific culture
and subculture.
• Ideas of deviance are challenged and change from one
period to another.
Sanction • A mode of reward or punishment that reinforces socially
expected forms of behaviour.
• Rewards are used to enforce good and expected
behaviour.
• Negative sanctions are used to enforce rules and to
restrain deviance.

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