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The Psychology of Addictive Behaviour
How to define addiction has been a matter of great debate for decades. For
many, the concept of addiction involves the taking of drugs. However there is
now a growing movement which views a number of behaviours as potentially
addictive, including those that do not involve the ingestion of a drug, such as;
gambling, overeating, sex, exercise, video playing, love, internet use, and believe
it or not…work!
In fact you can become addicted to almost anything. Such diversity
has led to all new all encompassing definitions of what constitutes an
addictive behaviour. One such definition is that of Marlatt et al.
(1988), who define addictive behaviour as:
‘A repetitive habit pattern that increases the risk of disease and/or associated
personal and social problems. Addictive behaviours are often experienced
subjectively as ‘loss of control’…these habit patterns are typically characterised
by immediate gratification (short term reward), often coupled with delayed
deleterious effects (long term costs)…’
Components model of addiction- used as clinical criteria for diagnosing
substance dependence (addiction) to alcohol, nicotine or other drugs.
Salience
Mood
Modification
Tolerance
Withdrawal
Symptoms
Conflict
Relapse
It is important to consider that some individuals engage in behaviours that have
addictive elements without it necessarily being a full-blown addiction. For

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instance, if someone has no negative withdrawal after stopping their excessive
cocaine use, are they really addicted? If the cocaine use does not conflict with
anything else in that person’s life, can it be said to be an addiction?
In very simple terms, the difference between an excessive enthusiasm and an
addiction is that enthusiasms add to life whereas addictions take away from it.
All explanations explain addiction in terms of initiation, maintenance and relapse-
what do these terms mean?
The Biological Model of Addictive Behaviour
Using the textbook answer the following questions:
Genetics
Initiation: Family and twin studies have demonstrated that genes contribute to
the development of alcohol dependence, with heritability estimates of between
___% % ___% for both men and women.
What did Agrawal & Lynskey (2006) find in their research into drug abuse and
dependence?
Twin studies have also found that the co-occurrence of some disorders is
influenced by genetic factors what did Kendler et al. (2003) find?
* Biological, cognitive and learning models
of addiction, including explanations for
initiation, maintenance and relapse.
* Explanations for specific addictions,
including smoking and gambling.
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Specific genes, specific drugs: In the 1990’s researchers began to link the D2
dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) to severe _______________. Noble et al.
found that the A1 variant of the gene was present in …
•
Whereas only …
•
Blum et al. (1991) found an increased prevalence of the A!1 variant among
children born to alcoholics, possibly reflecting the increased intra-family risk.
Individuals with the A1 variant appeared to have significantly fewer dopamine
receptors in the pleasure centres of the brain, leading Noble et al. to refer to the
DRD2 gene as the ‘__________ ________’.
In other words…
The result is that their addiction is maintained because it is only with the drug that
they feel good.
What addictions has the A1 variation of the DRD2 gene been associated with?
Research to illustrate (AO1) this comes from Comings et al. (1996) who found …

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The Disease Model- the role of dopamine in addiction
Initiation: Research has shown that addictive drugs stimulate a reward circuit in
the brain. Rewarding experiences, such as drug-taking, trigger the release of the
chemical ____________, effectively telling the brain to ‘do it again’.
For example; crack cocaine causes a massive and rapid activation of dopamine
receptors in the ______________ pathway. This circuit registers the value of
important experiences, thereby creating lasting memories that link to drug to a
pleasurable ___________.
Maintenance: Complete the diagram below-
Relapse: Eventually, desire for the drug may assume more importance than
most other desires. Despite the fact that the drug no longer gives much, if any,
pleasure, the brain is still receiving ‘difficult to resist’ signals of imminent reward
that force the addict to take the drug again. Due to this, permanent recovery is
made more difficult because of the drug-induced changes that create lasting
memories of the drug. Addicts have learned to expect a rewarding experience
from the drug, and, for the individual trying to abstain from the drug, they are
surrounded with cues- reminders of the drug that cause the release of dopamine
and therefore predicts a reward. This type of behavioural learning works even if
the addict knows that a reward is not really coming. Why does this occur?
Down Regulation
This generates…
This negative
state then…
As a result…

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+ Individual Differences - Inconsistent research
findings
- DRD2 gene and other
disorders
+ Supporting research - Limitations of neurochemical
explanations
Are dopamine sensitivity &
addiction inevitably linked?

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The Cognitive Model of Addictive Behaviour
The cognitive explanation is much easier to understand in relation to behavioural
addictions, such as _______________, than to chemical addictions, such as
_________________ and ______________ __________________. Cognitive
explanations of addiction focus on faulty thinking processes and biases, and it is
assumed that a person would be most susceptible to addiction during the
____________________ phase. Faulty cognitions are less likely to have an
effect during the initiation phase of the addiction, as the cognitive model also
assumes that all individuals are equally susceptible to developing an addictive
behaviour. However if someone were to give up their addiction, those with faulty
cognitions would be more susceptible to relapse unless they undergo some kind
of cognitive correction treatment.
Griffiths (1994)- irrational cognitive bias
An experiment demonstrated that gamblers have irrational cognitive
biases concerning their gambling behaviour and that they use a
variety of heuristics when gambling.
What are ‘heuristics’? Provide an example…
Griffiths aim was to investigate cognition in gambling and, in particular, to find out
whether regular gamblers (RG) think and behave differently from non-regular
gamblers (NRG)
How were RG and NRG defined?

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The experiment took place in a real amusement arcade. All participants were
randomly allocated to the thinking aloud (TA) or the non-thinking aloud (NTA)
group. They were all given £3 and asked to stay on the machine for 60 plays.
Griffiths found that there were cognitive differences between the two groups (RG
& NRG)
Irrational verbalisations- RG were more likely to have irrational verbalisations,
(e.g. personifying the machine). Examples of personification are;
Typical explanations for explaining losses involved;
Rational verbalisations-
In conclusion, there were only minor behavioural differences, however there were
important cognitive differences in both their rational and irrational verbalisations.
The results therefore support explanations of gambling that are based on
cognitive bias and heuristics.
- Experiential factors may play a role - Griffiths (1994) found that regular
gamblers had greater difficulty than occasional players in verbalising their
thoughts while they were gambling. Regular players seemed capable of
gambling without attending to what they were doing (‘on automatic pilot’),
suggesting that cognitive processes did not play a major role in the maintenance
of their behaviour.
- Skill perception varies across individuals – Many cognitive processes thought to
underlie gambling behaviour are more likely to be observed when activities are
perceived as having some skilful component (Griffiths 1995). However, beliefs
about skill in gambling are neither completely irrational nor consistent across

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players. This means that cause and effect of such relationships cannot be
established with any certainty.

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Cognitive Models:
o The Self- Medication Model
o Expectancy Theories- expectations about the outcomes of addictive
behaviour are thought to contribute to their excessive use
o Rational Choice Theory- people choose to engage in an activity as a result
of weighing up the costs and benefits.
Initiation Maintenance & Relapse
Initiation Maintenance & Relapse
Initiation Maintenance & Relapse

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Self Medication
+ Supporting Research
-Problems of cause and effect
Expectancy Theories
Subjective evaluation of expected outcomes
Addiction or consumption?
Rational Choice Theory
+ Explaining restraint
+Implications for treatment
In addition…
- Cognitive explanations may be limited to particular addictions – cognitive explanations may
have less of an effect in chemical addictions like heroin addiction but a more pronounced effect
in gambling and videogame addictions.

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The Behaviourist Model of Addictive Behaviour
Classical Conditioning
Initiation, the role of secondary reinforcers-
o
o
Maintenance and relapse- Once a drug habit has been acquired, it may be
maintained through the threat of withdrawal symptoms, for example…
Before conditioning
UCS UCR
During conditioning
UCS + NS UCR
AS Recap-
Explain the difference between classical and operant conditioning…
Explain the difference between positive and negative reinforcement…
What is the social learning theory?
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After conditioning
CS CR

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Operant Conditioning
Initiation, the role of positive reinforcement- Any behaviour producing a
consequence that the individual finds rewarding us likely to lead to the behaviour
than becoming more frequent.
How can this relate to dopamine?
Apply this to two types of addiction…
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Initiation- SLT extends the ideas of classical and operant conditioning to include
learning that takes place through observation and communication.
Addiction to drug use begins through operant conditioning…
However, some drug-taking experiences lead to adverse effects…
Maintenance and relapse-

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Classical Conditioning
N- There is supporting research for the classical conditioning explanation of
addiction.
E- Classical conditioning states that…
A- For example; Robins et al. (1975) found that
N- It can be suggested that classical conditioning can be used and a form of
treatment for addiction.
E- Drummond et al (1990)…
A- This then leads to ‘stimulus discrimination’
Operant Conditioning
N- A strength is that the process of developing and maintaining an addiction does
not require conscious choice or awareness.
E-
A- This therefore supports the underlying assumption of the learning model.
N- This explanation successfully explains why some people initially take
potentially addictive drugs, however there are other aspects of addiction it fails to
consider.
E- For example; Robinson & Berridge (1993)
A- Therefore there must be other psychological factors involved in the transition
from consumption to addiction.

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Social Learning Theory
N- There is supporting research for the social learning explanation of addiction.
E- For example; peer group influences have been found to be the primary
influence for adolescents who smoke or use drugs (DiBalsio & Benda, 1993).
A- This tendency to conform to the norms of a reference group and to imitate the
behaviour of admired peers has lead to the development of treatment
programmes…
Botvin (2000)
N- Social learning also considers the effects of self-efficacy on addiction.
E- For example; adults…
Also in adolescents…
A- Therefore it can be suggested that a person’s belief in their ability to succeed
in a situation can have can effect both maintenance and relapse.