Carbohydrates

1. CARBOHYDATES AND
RELATRED
COMPOUNDS
Prepared by
Nabeela jabeen
MPHIL Pharmacognosy
Rashid latif college of pharmacy

2. CARBOHYDRATES
• Are aldehyde or ketone alcohols containing
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in which hydrogen
and oxygen are in same ratio as in water

3. • The plant build its skeleton from carbohydrates material. Cellulose, a
polysaccharides composed of glucose units joined by β-1,4 linkages, form the
primary cell wall in plants.
• Other substances also occur with cellulose, e.g hemicellulose
• Hemicellulose also high molecular weight polysaccharides more soluble and more
easily hydrolyzed than cellulose.
• Closely related hemicellulose are gums and mucilages

5. Chemical tests for carbohydrates
Test Procedure Result
Fehling
Test
To hot solution of sample add equal
proportions of fehling’s solution, 1and 2 drop
by drop
Brick red ppts are formed
Molish Test A sample is mixed with alpha-napthol and
conc. Sulphuric acid
Purple colour solution is
formed
Resorcinol
Test
To the sample solution add crystals of
resorcinol and equal volume of con. HCL and
warm on a water bath.
Rose colour is produced if
ketone is present
Test for
Pentoses
Sample solution heated with equal volume of
HCL containing small quantity of phologlucinol
Red colour will be produced
if pentose are present

6. Test Procedure Result
Osazone
test
An aqeous solution of phenylhydrazine HCL
buffered with sodium acetate, the solution is
heated in water bath.
Yellow crystals are formed
Benedict’s
Test
Glucose is heated with benedict reagent Brick red ppts are formed
Tollen’s
Test
Heat the sample solution with tollen’s reagent Silver mirror is appeared
Barfoed’s
Test
Sample solution heated with barfoed’s reagent Red ppts

7. Test Procedure Result
Anthrone
Test
2ml of anthrone reagent is added in 0.2ml of
sapmle
Blue-green colour apperared
Bial’s Test 5ml of bail’s reagent is heated to boiling and
few drops of the sugar solution is added
Green colour apperared

8. SUCROSE
• Biological origin: Saccharum officnarum
• Family: Gramineae
• Sucrose is also known as saccharum or sugar and widely distributed in plants
• It is commercially obtained from sugar cane, sugar beet and also from sugar
maple

9. • Habitat: sugar cane is native to india and Pakistan, while sugar beets are
grow other then tropical and semitropical region
• Production:
• From sugar cane : the juice is obtained by crushing the stems between the heavy iron
rollers
• It is boiled with lime to neutralize the plant acids, which otherwise changes the sucrose
into invert sugar, and to coagulate albumin
• The latter rise to the top as a scum and are removed

10. • The juice is filtered sometimes decolourized with sulfur dioxide,
concentrated and crystallized
• When crystals of sugar are no longer obtainable, the residual , the dark
colour syrup is molasses, which is extensively used as foods, in animal
food and in preparation of ethyl alcohol

11. •Production from sugar beets :
• The beets are dug, washed, and sliced into small, limp slivers are known as “cossettes”
• Sucrose and other soluble constituents are extracted from the plant material with hot
water
• The crude sugar-containing solution is then subjected to the purification process

12. USES
• Sugar is pharmaceutic necessity for syrups;
• It is used as demulcent and a nutrient
• In sufficient concentration in aqueous solution, sugar is bacteriostatic and preservative
• It mask bitter taste of various dosage form
• It retard oxidation in certains preparation

13. DEXTROSE
• Dextran is a carbohydrate substance made up predominantly of D-glucose
units i.e. (C6H10O5)n. It is α–1, 6 linked polyglucan
• Dextran occurs naturally in grapes and other fruits and may be obtained from sources or
by the hydrolysis of certain natural glucosides
• It is also referred to as D-Glucose and prepared in similar manner as liquid glucose
• The conversion take place after heating at 45 pound pressure for about 35 minutes.
• The sugar is crystallized, washed, and dried to yield a dextrose of 99.9%-100% purity

14. USES
• it is used as nutrient and may be given by mouth, by enema, by subcutaneous
injections or by IV injection
• It is ingredient in dextrose injection and dextrose and sodium chloride injection
• It also is present in anticoagulate citrate dextrose and citrate phosphate solution
• It used in preparation in candy, carbonated beverages, ice cream, bakery and
canning industries

15. LIQUID GLUCOSE
• it is obtained by incomplete hydrolysis by the starch
• It chiefly contained dextrose, but also contain dextrins, maltose and water
• In US , liquid glucose is prepared from cornstarch
• The washed starch is mixed with diluted HCL and heated for 22 minutes at about
33 Ib pressure, the acid is neutralized
• The neutral liquid is centrifuge and filtered until cleared
• The clear liquid is then evaporated to the syrupy condition

16. USES
• It is used as sweetening agent
• As substitute for sucrose in syrup
• As a tablet binder
• As a coating agent

17. Fructose
• Fructose is D-fructose, beta D(-)-fructofuranose or fruit sugar is a sugar usually
obtained by the inversion of aqueous solutions of sucrose and subsequent
separation of fructose from glucose
• When sucrose is hydrolyzed, fructose and dextrose are formed in equal quantity
• Fructose is ketone sugar that occurs naturally in most sweet fruits (fruit suagr) and
honey

18. • It is usually obtained from enzymatically prepared high-fructose syrup, it may also
be obtained by the hydrolysis of inulin
• Properties: as colourless crystals or as a white, crystalline or granular, odorless powder
that has a sweet taste.
• It is freely soluble in water

19. USES
• As a food for diabetic pts and may be particular benefit in diabetic acidosis
• It produce less urinary secretion than glucose
• It is ingredient in fructose injection and fructose and sodium chloride injection
• These preparation are fluids, nutrients and electrolyte replenishers given IV or SC.

20. LACTOSE
• COW’S milk is the fresh, unpasteurized or pasteurized milk of Bos taurus (Bovidae),
without modification
• It complies with the legal standards of the state or community in which it is sold
• Properties: it is white, opaque liquid that is an emulsion of minutes fat
globules suspended in a solution of casein, albumin, lactose, and inorganic
salts.

21. • It has slight but pleasant odor and sweet taste
• It has specific gravity 1.029-1.034
• It contains from 30-40% water in which are dissolved about 3% casein, about 5% of lactose
and from 0.1-1% mineral salt
• It contain 2.5-5% fat and is rich in vitamins
• When milk is allowed to stand a few hours, the fat globules rise to the top
• Each is surrounded by albumin layer. When churned, the fat globules unite to form butter

22. • Leaving a liquid known as a buttermilk. The milk left after separating of the cream
is known as skimmed milk. Which if treated with renin, form coagulum.
• Upon proper treatment, this coagulum is made into cheese. The liquid separated
from the coagulum is known whey and contain lactose and inorganic salts

23. • Condensed milk is prepared by partial evaporation of milk in a vaccum and
consequent sterilization in hermetically sealed containers by autoclaving
• Malted milk: is prepared by evaporating milk with an extract of malt. Low heat and
vacuum are used to prevent the destruction of enzymes
• Lactose or milk sugar is a sugar obtained from milk. The sugar is crystallized from
the whey obtained in the manufacture of cheese
• These impure crystals are redissolved in water, decolourized with charcoal and
recrystallized

24. USES
• It is used as tablet diluent
• It is less sweet than sucrose and is more easily hydrolyzed , as a nutrient in infant’s
food

25. XYLOSE
• Xylose, D-xylose or wood sugar is a pentose sugar obtained by boiling corn cobs,
straw, or similar materials with dilute acids to hydrolyze the xylan polymer
• It has sweet taste and is normally absorbed from the intestine, it is not
metabolized to a significant extent by mammalian enzymes
• The relative excretion of xylose in the urine is indicative of intestinal malabsorption
state that may accompanied such conditions as celiac disease, crohn disease,
pellagra, radiation enteritis and surgical reaction

26. CARAMEL
• Caramel or burnt sugar coloring is a concentrated solution by heat of the product
obtained heating sugar or glucose until the sweet taste is destroy and a uniform
dark brown mass result
• A small amount of alkali, alkaline carbonate or a trace amount mineral acid is
added while heated
• Uses; caramel is used as coloring of various pharmaceutical preparation

27. CELLULOSE
• Purified cotton: is the hair of seed of Gossypium hirsutum (fam. Malvaceae) that is
freed from adhering impurities, deprived of fatty matter, bleached and sterilized in
its final container.
• Purified cotton is also referred to as “absorbent cotton”
• Gossypium, the ancient name for the cotton plant, is from the Arabic gos meaning
a soft silky substances; hirsutum is from the latin meaning rough or hairy

28. • Habitat: it is cultivated in Asia and America
• Production: the plants produce capsules (bolls) that open along the longitudinal
sutures when ripe and reveal a mass of white hair attached to the brown seeds.
• The mass of hairs and seeds are collected and “ginned” a machine process for
removing the seeds
• To render cotton adsorbent and short hair (linters)
• The cotton is washed with weak alkali solution to remove fatty materials

29. • Bleached with chlorinated soda, washed with weak acids and then water and
finally dried and recarded into flat sheets.
• After the absorbent cotton is packed and sterilized
• Uses:
• Surgical dressing; it serve as mechanical protection to absorb blood, mucus or pus,
and to keep bacteria from infecting wounds

30. Types of Cellulose

32. Methyl Cellulose

33. Sodium Carboxy Methyl Cellulose
• It is sodium salt of a polycarboxymethyl ether of cellulose
• It is hygroscopic powder, used as
• Suspending agent
• Thickening agent
• Tablet excipient
• Bulk laxative
• The usual cathartic dose is 1.5g with water 3 times a day

34. Gums and Mucilages
• Gums are natural plant hydrocolloids that may be classified as anionic or non-
ionic polysaccharides or salt of polysaccharides
• Physical properties: they are translucent, amorphous substances that are
frequently produced in higher plant as a protective after injury
• It is heterogeneous in composition . Upon hydrolyze, arabinose, galactose,
glucose, mannose, xylose, and various uronic acids

35. Application of Gums
• Tablet binder
• Ingredient in dental and in bulk laxative
• Emulsifier
• Gelating agent
• Suspending agent
• Stabilizier
• Thickner

36. Tragacanth
• It is dried gummy exudates from Astragalus gumnifer (Leguminosae)
• It is commonly known as gum targacanth
• The name targacanth is from greek origin “tragos” (goat) and akantha (horn)
probably refers as curved shape of the drug, astragalus refers as milkbone
• Plant characteristics:
• The plant is throny branches shrub about 1 meter in height and abundant in
highland of Asia, Iran, the soviet union and greec

37. • Production of gum:
• when the plant is injuried, the cell wall of the piths and then medullary rays are
transform into gum
• the gum absorbed water and create internal pressure within the stem, thus forcing
the gum to the surface through the incision that caused the injury
• When the gum strikes the air, it gradually hardens owning to the evaporation of
the water

38. • The nature of incision governs the shape of the final products
• The gum exuding from the natural injuries is more or less wormlike and is twisted
like coils known as vermiform tragacanth
• Tragacanth sorts is irregular tears are known as targacanth sorts of yellowish or
brown in color
• The better grade comes from transverse incisions is known as ribbon gum or flake
gum
• The gum show the irregular longitudinal striations caused by small irregularities in
the incisions

39. USES
• Suspending agent for insoluble powders in mixtures.
• Emulsifying agent
• Tragacanth is the most resistant of the hydrocolloids to acids hydrolysis and thus
highly preferred for use in highly acidic condition
• In cosmetic as demulcent and emollient
• Cloth printing
• Confectionary

40. ACACIA
• Acacia is dried gummy exudate from the stems and branches of Acacia senegal
(family: Leguminosae)
• Acacia plant are thorny trees about 6m in height that grow in sudan and in
Senegal
• Collection: the trees are tapped by making the transverse incisions in the bark and
peeling the bark both below and above the cuts and exposing

41. • the cambium 2-3 feet in length and 2-3 inches in breadth.
• In 2-3 weeks, the tear of gum are formed on this exposed surface are collected,
the average yields of gum per trees is 900-2000g per annum
• The formation of gum due to bacterial action or by the action of ferment
• Chemicals: arabin, calcium, magnesium and sodium salt of Arabic acids
• 12-15% water, oxidases , peroxidases and pectinases

42. • Uses;
• Emulsent
• Adhesive
• Binder
• Demulcent
• Emollient

43. SODIUM ALGINATE
• Algin is the purified carbohydrates product extracted from the brown seaweeds by the use
of dilute alcohol
• It is mainly obtained by Macrocystis pyrifera (lessoniaceae)
• Chemicals:
• Alginic acids
• Guluronic acids
• Mannuronic acids

44. • USES:
• Suspending agent
• Food industry (ice cream, chocolate milk, salad dressing, icings, confectionery)
• Thickening agent
• Formation of firm gel for preparing dental impression

45. AGAR
• Agar is the dried hydrophilic, colloidal substance extracted from Gelidium gineum
(Gelidiaceae)
• Agar is sometime known as Japanase isinglas
• These algae grow along the coast of asia and the coast of North America and Europe
• Production of agar:
• The fresh seaweeds is washed for 24-hours in running water
• Extracted in steam heated digesters with dilute acid solution and then with water for the
total period of 30 hours

46. • The hot aqueous extract is cooled and then congealed in ice machines
• The water from the agar almost completed separates as ice
• The 300-pound agar ice block (containing about the 5 pounds of dry agar) is
crushed, melted and filtered through a rotary vacuum filter
• The moist agar flake is dried by current of dry air in tail cylinders
• The fully dried product can be reduced to a fine powder

47. • Characteristic features:
• Agar usually occurs as bundles consisting of thin, membranous, agglutinated strips or
in cut, flaked or granulated forms
• Agar is insoluble in cold water, but if one part of agar is boiled for 10 minutes with 65
times its weight of water, it yields a firm a gel when cooled

48. Chemical composition:
• Agrose
• Agropectin
Uses
• Smooth and nonirritant bulk that favours normal peristalsis
• Laxative
• Suspending agent
• Emulsifying agent
• Gelating agent in suppositories
• Surigcal lubricant
• Tablet excipients
• Bacteriologic culture media
• As matrix for immunodiffusion
• Electrophoretics separation of globulin and other proteins (techinques used in gel
filteration and gel chromatography)

49. PECTIN
• Pectin is purified carbohyrates product from the dilute acid extract of the inner
portion of rind of citrus fruits or from apple pomeace
• Pectin is from greek and means congeal or curdled
• It is natural hydrophilic colloids consisting of partially methoxylated
polygalacturonic acids, D-galacturoinc acids

50. • Production
• Pectin in fruit is found in an insoluble form known as protoprotein
• It is converted to the soluble form by heating the fruit with dilute acids
• The solution of pectin is ppt by alcohol or by salting out.
• It is then washed and dried

51. USES
• Protectant
• Suspending agent
• As ingredient in antidiarrheal formulation
• As colliodial solution, it has property of conjugating toxins and enhancing the physiological
functions of GIT
• In upper GIT pectin possesses a surface area composed of ultramicroscopic particles that
have the property of colloidal absorption of toxins
• The efficacy of pectin in GIT due to the colliodial natures