2. 2
Outline
• What is a Decision?
• Clinical Decision Making
• Roles of IT in Decision Making
• Clinical Decision Support Systems
– Definitions
– Types & examples
– Architecture
• Issues Related to CDS Implementation
• Summary
7. 7
Example: Problem A
• Patient A has a blood pressure reading of
170/100 mmHg
• Data: 170/100
• Information: BP of Patient A = 170/100 mmHg
• Knowledge: Patient A has high blood pressure
• Wisdom (or Decision):
– Patient A needs to be investigated for cause of HT
– Patient A needs to be treated with anti-hypertensives
– Patient A needs to be referred to a cardiologist
8. 8
Example: Problem B
• Patient B is allergic to penicillin. He was recently
prescribed amoxicillin for his sore throat.
• Data: Penicillin, amoxicillin, sore throat
• Information:
– Patient B has penicillin allergy
– Patient B was prescribed amoxicillin for his sore throat
• Knowledge:
– Patient B may have allergic reaction to his prescription
• Wisdom (or Decision):
– Patient B should not take amoxicillin!!!
9. 9
Decision & Decision Making
• Decision
– “A choice that you make about something
after thinking about it : the result of deciding”
(Merriam-Webster Dictionary)
• Decision making
– “The cognitive process resulting in the
selection of a course of action among several
alternative scenarios.” (Wikipedia)
13. 13
Clinical Decisions
• Patient Care
– What patient history to ask?
– What physical examinations to do?
– What investigations to order?
• Lab tests
• Radiologic studies (X-rays, CTs, MRIs, etc.)
• Other special investigations (EKG, etc.)
– What diagnosis (or possible diagnosis) to
make?
14. 14
Clinical Decisions
• Patient Care
– What treatment to order/perform?
• Medications
• Surgery/Procedures/Nursing Interventions
• Patient Education/Advice for Self-Care
• Admission
– How should patient be followed-up?
– With good or poor response to treatment, what
to do next?
– With new information, what to do next?
15. 15
Clinical Decisions
• Management
– How to improve quality of care and clinical
operations?
– How to allocate limited budget & resources?
– What strategies should the hospital pursue &
what actions/projects should be done?
16. 16
Clinical Decisions
• Public Health
– How to improve health of population?
– How to investigate/control/prevent disease
outbreak?
– How to allocate limited budget & resources?
– What areas of the country’s public health need
attention & what to do with it?
18. 18
External Memory
Knowledge Data
Long Term Memory
Knowledge Data
Inference
DECISION
PATIENT
Perception
Attention
Working
Memory
CLINICIAN
Elson, Faughnan & Connelly (1997)
Clinical Decision Making
20. 20
Image Source: (Left) http://docwhisperer.wordpress.com/2007/05/31/sleepy-heads/
(Right) http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/2008/12/05/health/chen_600.jpg
To Err is Human 1: Attention
21. 21
Image Source: Suthan Srisangkaew, Department of Pathology, Facutly of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University
To Err is Human 2: Memory
22. 22
To Err is Human 3: Cognition
• Cognitive Errors - Example: Decoy Pricing
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Ariely (2008)
16
0
84
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68
32
# of
People
# of
People
23. 23
• Medical Errors
–Drug allergies
–Drug interactions
• Missing Abnormal Lab Findings
• Clinical Practice Guidelines
• Bias in Judgment & Decision-Making
Common Errors in Healthcare
25. 25
External Memory
Knowledge Data
Long Term Memory
Knowledge Data
Inference
DECISION
PATIENT
Perception
Attention
Working
Memory
CLINICIAN
Elson, Faughnan & Connelly (1997)
Clinical Decision Making
26. 26
External Memory
Knowledge Data
Long Term Memory
Knowledge Data
Inference
DECISION
PATIENT
Perception
Attention
Working
Memory
CLINICIAN
Elson, Faughnan & Connelly (1997)
Possible Human Errors
Possibility of
Human Errors
28. 28
• Clinical Decision Support (CDS) “is a
process for enhancing health-related
decisions and actions with pertinent,
organized clinical knowledge and patient
information to improve health and healthcare
delivery” (Including both computer-based &
non-computer-based CDS)
(Osheroff et al., 2012)
What Is A CDS?
29. 29
• Computer-based clinical decision support
(CDS): “Use of the computer [ICT] to bring
relevant knowledge to bear on the health
care and well being of a patient.”
(Greenes, 2007)
What Is A CDS?
30. 30
• The real place where most of the values
of health IT can be achieved
• There are a variety of forms and nature
of CDS
Clinical Decision Support
Systems (CDS)
31. 31
• Expert systems
–Based on artificial
intelligence, machine
learning, rules, or
statistics
–Examples: differential
diagnoses, treatment
options
CDS Examples
Shortliffe (1976)
32. 32
• Alerts & reminders
–Based on specified logical conditions
• Drug-allergy checks
• Drug-drug interaction checks
• Drug-lab interaction checks
• Drug-formulary checks
• Reminders for preventive services or certain actions
(e.g. smoking cessation)
• Clinical practice guideline integration (e.g. best
practices for chronic disease patients)
CDS Examples
36. 36
• Pre-defined documents
–Order sets, personalized “favorites”
–Templates for clinical notes
–Checklists
–Forms
• Can be either computer-based or
paper-based
CDS Examples
37. 37
Order Sets
Image Source: http://www.hospitalmedicine.org/ResourceRoomRedesign/CSSSIS/html/06Reliable/SSI/Order.cfm
38. 38
• Simple UI designed to help clinical
decision making
–Abnormal lab highlights
–Graphs/visualizations for lab results
–Filters & sorting functions
CDS Examples
40. 40
External Memory
Knowledge Data
Long Term Memory
Knowledge Data
Inference
DECISION
PATIENT
Perception
Attention
Working
Memory
CLINICIAN
Elson, Faughnan & Connelly (1997)
How CDS Supports
Decision Making
Abnormal lab
highlights
41. 41
External Memory
Knowledge Data
Long Term Memory
Knowledge Data
Inference
DECISION
PATIENT
Perception
Attention
Working
Memory
CLINICIAN
Elson, Faughnan & Connelly (1997)
How CDS Supports
Decision Making
Order Sets
42. 42
External Memory
Knowledge Data
Long Term Memory
Knowledge Data
Inference
DECISION
PATIENT
Perception
Attention
Working
Memory
CLINICIAN
Elson, Faughnan & Connelly (1997)
How CDS Supports
Decision Making
Drug-Allergy
Checks
43. 43
External Memory
Knowledge Data
Long Term Memory
Knowledge Data
Inference
DECISION
PATIENT
Perception
Attention
Working
Memory
CLINICIAN
Elson, Faughnan & Connelly (1997)
How CDS Supports
Decision Making
Drug-Drug
Interaction
Checks
44. 44
External Memory
Knowledge Data
Long Term Memory
Knowledge Data
Inference
DECISION
PATIENT
Perception
Attention
Working
Memory
CLINICIAN
Elson, Faughnan & Connelly (1997)
How CDS Supports
Decision Making
Drug-Drug
Interaction
Checks
45. 45
External Memory
Knowledge Data
Long Term Memory
Knowledge Data
Inference
DECISION
PATIENT
Perception
Attention
Working
Memory
CLINICIAN
Elson, Faughnan & Connelly (1997)
How CDS Supports
Decision Making
Clinical Practice
Guideline
Alerts/Reminders
46. 46
External Memory
Knowledge Data
Long Term Memory
Knowledge Data
Inference
DECISION
PATIENT
Perception
Attention
Working
Memory
CLINICIAN
Elson, Faughnan & Connelly (1997)
How CDS Supports
Decision Making
Integration of
Evidence-Based
Resources (e.g.
drug databases,
literature)
47. 47
External Memory
Knowledge Data
Long Term Memory
Knowledge Data
Inference
DECISION
PATIENT
Perception
Attention
Working
Memory
CLINICIAN
Elson, Faughnan & Connelly (1997)
How CDS Supports
Decision Making
Diagnostic/Treatment
Expert Systems
48. 48
User User Interface
Patient
Data
Inference Engine
Knowledge
BaseOther Data
• Rules & Parameters
• Statistical data
• Literature
• Etc.
• System states
• Epidemiological/
surveillance data
• Etc.
Example of CDS
Architecture
Other
Systems
50. 50
• How will CDS be implemented in real life?
• Will it interfere with user workflow?
• Will it be used by users? If not, why?
• What user interface design is best?
• What are most common user complaints?
• Who is responsible if something bad
happens?
• How to balance reliance on machines &
humans
Human Factor Issues of CDS
53. 53
Issues
• CDSS as a supplement or replacement of clinicians?
– The demise of the “Greek Oracle” model (Miller & Masarie, 1990)
The “Greek Oracle” Model
The “Fundamental Theorem”
Friedman (2009)
Human Factor Issues of CDS
Wrong Assumption
Correct Assumption
54. 54
• Features with improved clinical practice
(Kawamoto et al., 2005)
– Automatic provision of decision support as part of
clinician workflow
– Provision of recommendations rather than just
assessments
– Provision of decision support at the time and location of
decision making
– Computer based decision support
• Usability & impact on productivity
Human Factor Issues of CDS
56. 56
• Liabilities
– Clinicians as “learned intermediaries”
• Prohibition of certain transactions vs.
Professional autonomy
(see Strom et al., 2010)
Ethical-Legal Issues of CDS
58. 58
• “Unanticipated and unwanted effect of
health IT implementation”
(www.ucguide.org)
• Resources
– www.ucguide.org
– Ash et al. (2004)
– Campbell et al. (2006)
– Koppel et al. (2005)
Unintended Consequences of
CDS & Health IT
59. 59
Ash et al. (2004)
Unintended Consequences of
CDS & Health IT
60. 60
• Errors in the process of entering and
retrieving information
– A human-computer interface that is not
suitable for a highly interruptive use context
– Causing cognitive overload by
overemphasizing structured and “complete”
information entry or retrieval
• Structure
• Fragmentation
• Overcompleteness
Ash et al. (2004)
Unintended Consequences of
CDS & Health IT
61. 61
• Errors in communication & coordination
– Misrepresenting collective, interactive work as
a linear, clearcut, and predictable workflow
• Inflexibility
• Urgency
• Workarounds
• Transfers of patients
– Misrepresenting communication as information
transfer
• Loss of communication
• Loss of feedback
• Decision support overload
• Catching errors
Ash et al. (2004)
Unintended Consequences of
CDS & Health IT
62. 62
• Which type of CDS should be chosen?
• What algorithms should be used?
• How to “represent” knowledge in the system?
• How to update/maintain knowledge base in
the system?
• How to standardize data/knowledge?
• How to implement CDS with good system
performance?
Technical Issues of CDS
63. 63
• Choosing the right CDSS strategies
• Expertise required for proper CDSS design &
implementation
• Everybody agreeing on the “rules” to be enforced
• Evaluation of effectiveness
Other Issues
64. 64
• Speed is Everything
• Anticipate Needs and Deliver in Real Time
• Fit into the User’s Workflow
• Little Things (like Usability) Can Make a Big Difference
• Recognize that Physicians Will Strongly Resist Stopping
• Changing Direction Is Easier than Stopping
• Simple Interventions Work Best
• Ask for Additional Information Only When You Really Need It
• Monitor Impact, Get Feedback, and Respond
• Manage and Maintain Your Knowledge-based Systems
Bates et al. (2003)
“Ten Commandments” for
Effective CDS
65. 65
• There are several decisions made in a clinical
patient care process
• Data leads to information, knowledge, and
ultimately, decision & actions
• Human clinicians are not perfect and can make
mistakes
• A clinical decision support systems (CDS) provides
support for clinical decision making (to prevent
mistakes & provide best patient care)
• A CDS can be computer-based or paper-based
Key Points
66. 66
• CDS comes in various forms, designs, and
architecture
• There are many issues related to design,
implementation and use of CDS
– Technical Issues
– Human Factor Issues
– Ethical-Legal Issues
Key Points
67. 67
• Current mindset: CDS should be used to
help, not replace, human providers
• Be attentive to workarounds, alert fatigues,
and other unintended consequences of CDS
– They can cause more danger to patients!!
– They may lead users to abandon using CDS (a
failure)
• There are recommendations on how to best
design & implement CDS
Key Points
69. 69
References
• Ash JS, Berg M, Coiera E. Some unintended consequences of information
technology in health care: the nature of patient care information system-related
errors. J Am Med Inform Assoc. 2004 Mar-Apr;11(2):104-12.
• Ariely D. Predictably irrational: the hidden forces that shape our decisions. New
York City (NY): HarperCollins; 2008. 304 p.
• Bates DW, Kuperman GJ, Wang S, Gandhi T, Kittler A, Volk L, Spurr C, Khorasani R,
Tanasijevic M, Middleton B. Ten commandments for effective clinical decision
support: making the practice of evidence-based medicine a reality. J Am Med
Inform Assoc. 2003 Nov-Dec;10(6):523-30.
• Campbell EM, Sittig DF, Ash JS, Guappone KP, Dykstra RH. Types of unintended
consequences related to computerized provider order entry. J Am Med Inform
Assoc. 2006 Sep-Oct;13(5):547-56.
• Elson RB, Faughnan JG, Connelly DP. An industrial process view of information
delivery to support clinical decision making: implications for systems design
and process measures. J Am Med Inform Assoc. 1997 Jul-Aug;4(4):266-78.
• Friedman CP. A "fundamental theorem" of biomedical informatics. J Am Med
Inform Assoc. 2009 Apr;16(2):169-170.
70. 70
References
• Greenes RA. Clinical decision support: the road ahead. Oxford (UK): Elsevier;
2007. 581 p.
• Institute of Medicine, Committee on Quality of Health Care in America. To err is
human: building a safer health system. Kohn LT, Corrigan JM, Donaldson MS,
editors. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2000. 287 p.
• Kawamoto K, Houlihan CA, Balas EA, Lobach DF. Improving clinical practice
using clinical decision support systems: a systematic review of trials to
identify features critical to success. BMJ. 2005 Apr 2;330(7494):765.
• Koppel R, Metlay JP, Cohen A, Abaluck B, Localio AR, Kimmel SE, et al. Role of
computerized physician order entry systems in facilitating medication errors.
JAMA. 2005 Mar 9;293(10):1197-1203.
• Miller RA, Masarie FE. The demise of the "Greek Oracle" model for medical
diagnostic systems. Methods Inf Med. 1990 Jan;29(1):1-2.
• Osheroff JA, Teich JM, Levick D, Saldana L, Velasco FT, Sittig DF, Rogers KM,
Jenders RA. Improving outcomes with clinical decision support: an
implementer’s guide. 2nd ed. Chicago (IL): Healthcare Information and
Management Systems Society; 2012. 323 p.
71. 71
References
• Shortliffe EH. Computer-based medical consultations: MYCIN. New York (NY):
Elsevier; 1976. 264 p.
• Strom BL, Schinnar R, Aberra F, Bilker W, Hennessy S, Leonard CE, Pifer E.
Unintended effects of a computerized physician order entry nearly hard-stop
alert to prevent a drug interaction: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern
Med. 2010 Sep 27;170(17):1578-83.
